



SAFETY 
FUNDAMENTAL 






Safety Fundamentals 

LECTURES GIVEN BY 

Safety Institute of America 

(Maintaining The American Museum of Safety) 



ON ALTERNATE SATURDAY MORNINGS, FROM FEB- 
RUARY 1st, TO JUNE 7th, 1919, FOR THE BENEFIT 
OF FACTORY INSPECTORS EMPLOYED BY 
THE CITY OF NEW YORK, THE STATES 
OF NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 
AND INSURANCE COMPANIES 
OPERATING IN AND NEAR 
NEW YORK CITY 



With Illustrations 



Safety Institute of America 

New York 
1920 



Hunu 

33 



Copyright, 1920, by Safety Institute of America 



f 



FEB 16 1920 



©CI.AS59773 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Foreword i 

I. 

The Body Which Gets Hurt 

By Dr. F. C. Smith, Surgeon, United States Public Health 

Service 3 

II. 

The Injured Body and Its Treatment 

By Dr. Loyal A. Shoudy, Chief Surgeon, Bethlehem Steel 

Corporation ......... 17 

III. 

(a) Protective Clothing for Men 

By R. M. Little, Director, Safety Institute of America . . 32 

(b) Suitable Work Garments for Women in Industry 

By Adelaide Wood Guthrie, Editor, Safety Institute of America 45 

IV. 
Safe Heads and Good Eyes 

By Walter G. King, Vice-President, Julius King Optical 

Company * . 61 

V. 

Guarding Machinery 

By Harry A. Schultz, Chief Safety Engineer, Industrial Rela- 
tions Division, Emergency Fleet Corporation .... 79 

VI. 

Arrangement of Machinery and Working Places 

By James L. Gernon, First Deputy Commissioner, New York 

State Industrial Commission 92 



CONTENTS 

VII. 

Heating and Ventilation 

By Chester C. Rausch, Assistant Director, Safety Institute 

of America io8 

VIII. 

Illumination 

By R. E. Simpson, Engineering and Inspection Division, The 

Travelers Insurance Company 135 

IX. 

Nature's Forces For and Against Workmen 

By Chester C. Rausch, Assistant Director, Safety Institute 

of America . 166 

X. 

Safety Education and Shop Organization 

By Arthur H. Young, Manager, Industrial Relations Division, 

International Harvester Company 193 



FOREWORD 

A GOOD inspector is more than a fault-finder. He is 
broad-minded and able to make constructive suggestions. 
He may use a rating schedule or book of standards, but he also 
is equipped to do more than merely apply them — he interprets 
them as well. Good inspectors, like all other efficient men, 
become capable through education, observation and experi- 
ence. 

Every inspector wants to be a good inspector. To assist 
such men employed by the City of New York and the States 
of New York and New Jersey and by insurance companies in 
and near New York City, to enlarge their knowledge and 
broaden their experience, the Safety Institute of America 
arranged the series of free lectures collected and published in 
this volume. The original lectures were given on alternate 
Saturday mornings, from the first of February to the middle 
of Jime of the current year. Each lecture was followed by 
floor discussions, questions and answers. The best of these 
spontaneous contributions — or rather those best adapted to 
book publication — will be found at the end of the respective 
chapters to which they apply. 

At first glance, the reader may perhaps wonder what some 
of these subjects have to do with Inspection. But why do we 
inspect at all ? Is it not to discover hazards and unsafe prac- 
tices which affect men and women and to find and apply a 
means to eliminate them ? We come, daily, into contact with 



FOREWORD 

obvious hazards for which guards may easily be designed and 
appHed. We should be quite as much interested — if not more 
so, indeed — in those subtle and seldom understood and appre- 
ciated factors which so largely are the forerunners of acci- 
dents. They are intimately related to the worker's person and 
conduct. 

This is the point of view assumed in these lectures. They 
start with the man who can be injured and study logically the 
various fundamentals that affect his mind and his body. The 
contributors to this volume are practical persons who have 
treated their subjects in a practical way. Many of the points 
brought out in the lectures were illustrated by slides or films, 
the most pertinent of which are reproduced here. 

R. M. Little^ Director, 
Safety Institute of America. 
New York, N. Y. 
October, 19 19. 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 



I. 

THE BODY WHICH GETS HURT 

By Dr. F. C. Smith, Surgeon, United States Public Health Service 

A MAN'S health and efficiency are matters about which he is 
extremely sensitive. He will resent instantly, especially in 
the presence of his fellows, any assumption on your part that he 
is not a healthy man. The laboring man has always assumed, 
without any evidence to that effect as the result of examination, 
that he is fit for his job. 

While we have doctors and nurses in factories, it is impossible 
for them to locate all men who are sick in time to make the neces- 
sary corrections. It is through the specially trained men who go 
about the factories watching for causes of accidental inefficiency 
that we may be helped in finding the men who are sick and in 
bringing them to the company doctor or to some other source of 
help. Such help cannot always be given in the presence of a 
man's associates but should you notice that a man is falling off 
a little in his efficiency, that he is not looking quite as well as he 
did a month ago or the year before, you can usually, by a few 
questions and suggestions, get him into the hands of a doctor. 
There are certain diseases in which we are absolutely dependent 
upon such help to save a man's life. Some diseases, such as 
tuberculosis, can be detected in the very early stages and most 
certainly cured if so detected. If allowed to go on for a year 
or two, as these diseases commonly are before being diagnosed, 
they make men fit only for the scrap heap. If every case of 
tuberculosis and Bright's disease were found just about a year 
before their victims considered themselves sick enough to go to a 
doctor there would be very few deaths from them. 

The Relation of Health to Labor Stability 

The health of a man is intimately related to labor turnover 
and the more frequent the turnover the more frequently do acci- 

3 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

dents occur. It is a well-known fact that it is during the "break- 
ing-in" period of a man's work that accidents are most likely to 
occur. A man who is ill with some chronic disease, which in- 
capacitates him only at intervals, seeks new jobs frequently. The 
man with chronic Bright's disease, chronic tuberculosis, nervous 
disease or rheumatism can work for a few months and then he 
must "lay off." He slides gradually down the economic scale to 
the end of his journey, causing, through no fault of his own but 
to the great vexation of safety engineers and superintendents of 
labor, accidents, waste and inefficiency. 

During war we expect wounded men and we build hospitals 
while we raise armies. In the industries we expect accidents and 
we provide first aid stations and build institutions for the care 
of sick men and women; but in the industries and in civil life 
we have, up to a short time ago, provided merely for the care of 
the wounded. We have taken the sick and the injured as they 
came to us, asking few questions and acting as though broken 
legs and typhoid fever were acts of God and to be expected. Now, 
we are beginning to ask ourselves whether a doctor should build 
a large hospital and stand in the front door to await the arrival 
of patients or whether he should build a smaller hospital and thgi 
go forward with the safety engineer into the factories and through 
the shops to assist in ordering things so that accidents and sick- 
ness will not occur. 

The Relation of Health to Accident Frequency 

I am aware that accidents are preventable in two chief ways 
and that both of these ways, the engineering revision of structure 
and practice and the personal equation of the worker, are debata- 
ble subjects. If a hoist chain were heavy enough to always 
stand any strain men might then walk beneath the hoisting der- 
rick with impunity. If all your machines were absolutely fool- 
proof then workers would need to exercise no care about getting 
hurt thereon. Dr. Lucian W. Chancy, of the United States 
Bureau of Labor Statistics, is an exponent of the idea that atten- 
tion should now be chiefly placed on making the industries fool- 

4 



THE BODY WHICH GETS HURT 

proof ; while others, equally astute, think that the attention should 
be principally directed to the careful training of men so that 
they will use their heads and cooperation in the work of pre- 
venting accidents. There is no real difference in opinion among 
the initiated because they understand Dr. Chaney is speaking of 
equipment like blast furnaces and rolling-mills where accidents, 
with deaths and total disabilities, are frequent and where men 
are helpless in the presence of disaster to their machines. In 
other industries, such as the building of telephone lines or in any 
kind of hand labor, it is evident that the degree of care exer- 
cised by individual workers would be of supreme importance in 
preventing accidents. Chaney lays great stress on the occur- 
rence of structural accidents, computing lost time in the usual 
way (thirty years for a death and thirty-five for a total disabil- 
ity) and is inclined to belittle the more frequent accidents of 
minor degree. Nevertheless, the minor accidents cause a turn- 
over which, in itself, again adds to the frequency of accidents. 
I hardly need tell you that the healthy man is less likely to 
meet with an accident than the sick man, or that a man who 
comes to his work clear-eyed, full of vigor and without an ache 
to distract him is a hundred per cent man. The man who comes 
to his work with a toothache, a stomach ache or a pain any- 
where, or with a personal worry, may only be a seventy per cent 
or a thirty per cent man ; at any rate, he is not a well man. Most 
sick men are under a doctor's care but are at work or trying to 
work. Health is purely a relative term; there are very few 
people who are absolutely well. About half of the men who 
applied for military service were rejected, the most common cause 
of their disability for service being defective teeth. 

The Increasing Mortality at Middle Age 

Community hygiene is at present very highly developed. Most 
cities have a good water supply and proper sewage disposal. 
Pure milk is commonplace and pure food is fairly well provided. 
The death rate from cholera, plagues, typhoid fever and the com- 
moner contagious diseases has been reduced to a point which 

5 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

cannot be called the "irreducible minimum," but which is, never- 
theless, an approachment to a satisfactory minimum. 

We are surprised, however, to find that the death rate after 
forty is increasing instead of falling. A man who arrives at the 
age of forty is actually less liable to live to be sixty than the man 
of forty was a generation ago. All the pure water, sanitary 
sewers, and health boards in the world will not solve the problem 
of Bright's disease and diseases of the arteries and heart which 
are responsible for this increased mortality in middle life. The 
prevention of these diseases in the next generation will depend 
upon the knowledge of hygiene possessed by the individual man 
and woman. Just as a machine has been made safe to a desirable 
point, so health officers have made community life safe to a satis- 
factory degree ; and just as the worker will stumble over a loose 
board, walk under a creaking derrick or discard his goggles at a 
critical time, so men and women will overtax their nervous sys- 
tems or overload their digestive systems and so invite disaster 
to their human machines. 

Just as there is in industry a class of accidents which some call 
preventable, and others say are due to contributory negligence, 
so does the same condition arise in diseases. No one doubts that 
cholera and plague are preventable or that old age and baldness 
are non-preventable ; but there is a large class of diseases includ- 
ing rheumatism, Bright's disease, apoplexy and heart disease 
which are preventable only by the closest cooperation and intel- 
ligence of the individual. It is with these that the health officer 
is now mostly concerned. It is actually believed that community 
hygiene will simply "mark time" in its present position for a 
quarter of a century, while we begin in the primary school 
grades with the growing child and train him in the multitudinous 
details of a hygienic life in order to enable him to meet under- 
standingly the pitfalls which await him at middle age. 

The Importance of Healthy Breathing Apparatus. 

A person's breathing apparatus is simple or complex depending 
on how we look at it. The lungs are enclosed in the bony chest, 

6 



THE BODY WHICH GETS HURT 

which they always fill completely, just as an inflated toy balloon 
will fill a bottle. When the diaphragm is depressed and the ribs 
raised to increase the size of the chest, the lungs expand, and 
when the diaphragm is raised and the ribs are lowered the air 
is blown out. In ordinary respiration only about lO per cent of 
the air is changed with each breath. The purpose of breathing 
is to supply air to the tissues in exactly the same way that the 
blacksmith's bellows supplies air to the forge. If you close the 
dampers of a furnace the fire smoulders, smokes and goes out 
for lack of air. If a child's nose is obstructed with adenoids or 
his throat with enlarged tonsils, or a man contracts his chest with 
a tight belt or if he breathes air which is so charged with dust and 
fumes that he takes his breath grudgingly instead of generously, 
then they will have a condition in their tissues similar to 
your choked furnace. Not enough oxygen will be received; 
imperfect combustion will occur in the tissues; they will 
carry a small amount of steam in their bodies and will not 
be well. 

Contrast the appetite of the man who works outdoors in win- 
ter with that of the indoor worker. One man is receiving plenty 
of oxygen while the other man's furnace is clogged with cinders. 
The man or woman who is burning up wastes well shows the 
clear eye and the rosy complexion of health. The farmer or the 
sailor, both with unlimited opportunities for fresh air, do not 
always show the rosy hue of such oxygenation. They may show 
exactly the opposite effects since both are prone to house them- 
selves closely at night and to smoulder in ill-ventilated, overheated 
compartments. 

Predisposing Causes of Tuberculosis and Pneumonia 

There are two diseases of the lungs which outweigh, in im- 
portance, all other pulmonary troubles. Tuberculosis ranks first 
in importance in causing death, and pneumonia ranks very closely 
after tuberculosis. The two together cause nearly half of all 
the deaths occurring during the industrial period of life. Tuber- 
culosis is certainly preventable, first, by preventing the use of 

7 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

milk infected by tuberculous cattle or association with tubercular 
people; second, and this is probably of even more importance, 
by avoidance of the practices which predispose. The practices 
which predispose to tuberculosis are those that cause chronic and 
inordinate fatigue, exhaustion and depletion. The hard-driving, 
self-denying man or woman burdened with domestic cares or 
spurred by ambition to better conditions, is the one who suc- 
cumbs to tuberculosis. The ascetic recluse, denying himself the 
usual comforts of life, falls victim just as the worthless profli- 
gate who spends his money and energy in riotous living. The 
nun in her convent and the society bud overtaxing her useless life 
in debutante dances, are imperiled in the same way by the break- 
ing down of their natural defenses against tuberculosis. The 
laboring man whose slender means prevent his getting three 
square meals a day and the highly-strung business man who 
grudgingly gives the time to bolting a hasty breakfast and to grab- 
bing a scanty lunch are in equal peril from tuberculosis which 
merely bides its time until the bodily defenses are broken down 
by underfeeding, overwork, worry or some other form of strain 
and stress. 

It is only by training the every-day man and woman from 
childhood to a knowledge of the critical times and susceptible 
periods in later life and to the predisposing causes of tuberculosis, 
that a satisfactory reduction in the death rate can be secured. 
The routine physical examination once or twice a year of all 
men and women in the industries will be of incalculable value 
and the provision, through health insurance or other sick benefits, 
of treatment for minor illness, or nursing through illness to a 
complete cure, will be of great benefit in this campaign. 

To reduce the mortality from pneumonia is not so simple. We 
know some of the predisposing causes: inordinate fatigue and 
rapid chilHng, especially of the tired or hungry body. Alco- 
holism and diseases such as measles and influenza are important 
predisposing causes. Probably the best advice which could be 
given for the prevention of pneumonia is to heed carefully the 
early symptoms of sickness and to go to bed early in the course 

8 



THE BODY WHICH GETS HURT 

of the disease. The man who stays on his feet and fights his 
sickness is the man who suffers most severely when that sickness 
turns out to be pneumonia or other serious disease. The man who 
seeks his bed at the first symptom of trouble is the one who 
contributes to the low mortality in all serious sickness. 
Heiser's dictum that pneumonia occurs more frequently in those 
rooms having the largest number of people is worth remem- 
bering. 

The relation of disease of the lungs to the occurrence of acci- 
dents in the industries is, of course, only general. Any sickness 
which blunts the mental processes, which weakens the arm, slows 
the action of the reflexes or shakes the nerves will certainly in- 
crease the accident rate and any disease which increases the 
irritability and impatience of a worker will imperil him and his 
associates. 

The Digestive Tract 

The stomach and the twenty-four feet of intestines below it 
are the most important parts of the digestive system. One is 
frequently asked how large the stomach is and could well reply 
by inquiring how large a breakfast is because the size of the stom- 
ach is measured by the size of its contents. The walls of an 
empty stomach are in contact like the palm and fingers of a 
closed fist. If you have ingested a glass of ice water and have 
attempted to float a fried egg thereon, then the size of your 
stomach is increased by what you have taken. Just as the gizzard 
of a fowl grinds between its opposing surface the grain which 
has been swallowed, so the strong muscles of the stomach ma- 
cerate the contents. The fowl, however, adds pieces of sand, 
gravel and broken crockery. If the fowl is an ostrich it may add 
some shoe buttons, jack knives and other junk to the grist and 
these assist materially in, the gizzard mill. Food is prepared for 
the human stomach more carefully and all the human stomach 
is supposed to do is to add the necessary hydrochloric acid and 
pepsin and to thoroughly mix the contents, delivering this emul- 
sion through the muscular valve called the pylorus, in little 

9 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

squirts or jets, into the small intestine where absorption begins. 
Practically no absorption takes place in the stomach. Food once 
passed through the pylorus cannot return to the stomach and 
vomiting will empty the stomach except in very exceptional and 
serious conditions. In the intestines the contents progress by 
peristaltic waves which begin at the upper end and, progressing 
downward, carry the contents slowly along. 

Some Digestive Fads 

There is no part of the body more subject to abuse, more the 
victim of absurd speculation and foolish practice, than the diges- 
tive tract. Some of these fads and fancies have a rational 
basis. For instance, "Fletcherizing" is a reaction against the 
habit of eating too fast. Mr. Fletcher had indigestion from bolt- 
ing food, but found that by chewing his food thoroughly, assign- 
ing a certain number of jaw movements, 30 or 40 or 50 for each 
mouthful of food, he was helped. Vegetarianism is a reaction 
against the eating of too much meat. Most Americans eat far 
more meat than is necessary and this overtaxes the kidneys and 
certain other organs. It is a considerable tax upon the stomach 
and intestines to try to live without meat and merely results in 
the subterfuge of eating more eggs and milk to supply the neces- 
sary proteid. Still, vegeterianism has done very little harm and 
has written in capital letters a useful protest against a current 
abuse. There are other fads with which one cannot sympathize. 
One was the barbarous practice of denying water in sufficient 
quantities to the sick. A sick child burning with fever was com- 
monly allowed only small sips at infrequent intervals, and adults, 
if they were docile enough to submit to it, were often treated in 
the same way. There is absolutely no scientific basis f6r such a 
practice. It was contrary to all the laws of hygiene and is, I 
believe, now almost entirely supplanted by the custom of allow- 
ing water practically ad libitum. Likewise, those persons who 
exploit the dry diet, those who exploit excessive water drinking 
and those who preach the "no breakfast" fad are usually out of 
touch with rational hygiene. 

10 



THE BODY WHICH GETS HURT 

The Amount of Food Required 

The amount of food one needs varies considerably, being esti- 
mated at between 2500 and 4000 calories, of which proteins 
should comprise 10 per cent., fats 30 per cent, and carbohy- 
drates, chiefly starch and sugar, 60 per cent. The average daily 
diet amounts to about 6 pounds of water, 15 otmces of sugary 
and starchy foods including vegetables, 3 ounces of fat and 3 
ounces of proteid. The growing child needs more lime salts 
and more proteid in proportion to the body weight than the adult. 
The office worker requires almost the same amount of protein as 
the manual laborer does, but the manual laborer needs larger 
quantities of fat and carbohydrates to supply power and heat for 
his greater consumption of energy. This explains in part the 
Navy Yard workman's desire for pie and ice cream and the sail- 
or's and soldier's craving for candy. 

Absorption of Food 

The rapidity with which certain foods are absorbed from the 
digestive tract and thrown into the blood and again excreted 
through the lungs, kidneys and skin is remarkable. A raw onion 
taken into the stomach and passed to the intestines is digested 
and the aromatic portion begins to be released from the blood 
through the lungs and is detected in the breath within a few 
minutes. The rapidity with which alcoholic drinks are absorbed 
and the manner of detecting the same are well known. Most 
of you have marveled at the quickness with which the peculiar 
odor associated with asparagus appears in the urine after eating 
that vegetable. Sulphur if swallowed in a capsule becomes evi- 
dent in the sweat within a few hours and will blacken silver 
money carried in the pocket. 

The Muscles 

Just as a jumping jack is moved by strings when they are 
properly pulled, so you and I move our limbs and our bodies 
about by the pulling of our muscles. The shape of the muscle 

II 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

depends altogether upon its location. The muscles on the side 
of the face are flat; those of the arms are long and cylindrical. 
Muscles exert their effect because of the fact that they can 
shorten themselves and exert a pull. The coordination of the 
muscles is most beautiful, but is not reached suddenly. Those 
of you who have watched children grow up know that at a certain 
time in children's lives they "find" themselves. They find, to 
their great surprise and delight, that they can stand and walk. 
The coordinating centres have then arrived at a point where 
they support the child in an erect position and he does not have 
to brace himself. Every worker when he goes to work at a new 
job has to train his reflex centres for that particular job. While 
he is training himself to take a board out of a saw and shift it 
elsewhere, to avoid a certain lever and be careful that he doesn't 
get pinched somewhere else, he is educating his reflex centres. 
You all know how the new man who enters the job — the new 
process man — is the man who experiences the largest number 
of accidents. But after a time he carries on his work in an 
almost reflex way and is less liable to accident. 

We know that muscles become tired; a statement only partly 
true. The heart, for instance, is nothing but a hollow piece of 
muscular tissue that beats from birth until death and, while it 
may become tired, it is tired only as its fuel supply is scant; 
tired only as its blood supply is restricted. If a man has been 
working and becomes tired, it isn't his muscles only that are 
tired, he is "tired all over." A working muscle is engorged with 
blood, but reflex muscles which control the blood supply loosen 
up and the working muscle draws a large amount of blood 
through itself. This blood supplies oxygen and food to the cells. 
Working muscles absorb oxygen and regenerating materials and 
throw off the carbon dioxide, urea and waste. One gets short of 
breath when working or running hard because of the demand 
made upon the oxygenating system for the oxygen required in 
the muscles. While, at the end of a day's work, one's muscles 
may be slightly damaged from fatigue and the necessity of re- 
moving cell elements, one is "tired all over" because the nerve 

12 



THE BODY WHICH GETS HURT 

cells are tired. You cannot, after having done a day's work in 
the shop, do an evening's work in the office. You might think 
that a man who has worked only his muscles all day could then 
go and do several hours' more work in mental processes, but it 
doesn't figure out that way at all. A man who is tired, either 
mentally or physically, is tired physically and mentally at the 
same time. 

Oral Hygiene 

The question of oral hygiene is one that is extremely impor- 
tant, since about 70 per cent, of our children have poor teeth. 
We ought to realize the importance of preserving a child's first 
teeth. You might ask why should two dollars be spent to fill 
little Johnny's first tooth when he is due to shed that tooth any- 
way in about three months. There is no better way of investing 
money than in the repair of the child's first teeth. When a tooth 
becomes decayed, not only does it afford opportunity for poison- 
ous material to be absorbed and give the child various troubles — 
from rheumatism, up and down the scale of ills, but if a tooth is 
pulled before the permanent tooth comes in, then the arch of the 
mouth narrows, and the second teeth come in irregularly. If 
the child's first teeth are preserved and kept in place just as long 
as possible, then the second teeth will come in regularly and the 
arch will be wide enough so that the nostrils will not be affected. 
Frequently, before the age of four, a child loses several front 
teeth. He is not due to have permanent teeth in these vacant 
places before the age of six. He goes two years with deficient 
front teeth and the result is that the arch of the jaw, instead of 
standing out as it should, contracts — straightens and shortens a 
little — narrowing the nostrils and the arch of the mouth; and 
when the child grows up he has an obstructed breathing ap- 
paratus. The new teeth are crowded and irregular because, 
while there is the normal number of teeth, they have to be ac- 
commodated in insufficient space. 

No one needs other argument or demonstration as to the ad- 
visability of taking care of the second set of teeth — the need is 

13 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

self-apparent. The man who develops diarrhea, or some other 
form of indigestion, from neglect of his teeth and who goet 
around with a toothache part of the time, is not only of lowered 
efficiency, but he is apt to develop serious diseases, such as sci- 
atica, rheumatism and certain forms of heart disease. 

Just a word more. Whenever you see the need and get the 
chance, just touch a man on the shoulder and say, "Old man, 
you ought to see a doctor; you ought to get that cough fixed; 
you are twenty pounds under weight ; take a week's vacation ; 
give up that extra work you are doing and get yourself in shape 
again." You can do no better deed. You can in this way help 
to raise the standard of physical efficiency in industry. 

Questions and Answers 

Q. Is there any truth in the belief that adenoids and tonsils 
have a function and that their removal will affect a person's 
speech? ^. The adenoids have absolutely no function. They are 
useless and usually disappear before the age of lo or 12. The 
tonsils are believed to be useless and their removal afifects the voice 
only in the case of very fine singers. The ordinary individual 
is never injured by the removal of adenoids and never has the 
quality of the voice materially altered by the removal of tonsils. 

Q. Is there any method by which the ordinary layman, upon 
entering a plant where there are fumes, can discover whether 
the workmen are suffering in any way? Any exterior marks or 
indications not generally noticed by laymen? A. After you have 
been working in a room for several hours your judgment about 
the quality of the air is not worth much. The air may smell all 
right to you. But the judgment of the man coming in fresh 
from the outside, the critical man who steps in to sniff the air 
and finds it bad, is worth much more than the opinion of the 
man who works in that shop day after day. 

Q. Will a draught of air cause contraction of the muscles — a 
sudden change from the heated air of the workroom to the cold 
outer air? A. It would cause a congestion of blood in the in- 
ternal parts and would be an exceedingly bad thing. It is one 

14 



THE BODY WHICH GETS HURT 

of the predisposing causes of pneumonia. One should not ex- 
pose the body«^the warm and overheated body — to a dratig^ht 
of cold air. 

Q. Is the fact that practically every worker has a bad breath a 
serious matter? A. The commonest cause of bad breath is the 
teeth, although there are other causes. If the skin is working 
properly less waste is thrown off by the lungs. Many working- 
men who have to rise early in the morning and who come home 
very tired at night, or who live in homes lacking modern con- 
veniences, are unable to keep their skins clean by frequent bath- 
ing. Constipation is also a common cause of bad breath. 

Q. What is the value of a daily bath? A, Invaluable, sir. 

Q. What is the value of a good tooth brush and any of the 
pastes? A. They are beyond price. 

Q. A great many people suffer from defective or obstructed 
nasal organs. What is the value of surgical operations in cor- 
recting these conditions? A. I am glad of an opportunity to an- 
swer that question because I think possibly I have given you the 
impression that the removal of enlarged tonsils is always to be 
desired. I want to correct that impression. Wherever there is an 
adenoid present it should be gotten rid of, but enlarged tonsils 
should not be removed unless they give symptoms of disease. 
Some of the worst tonsils are small. Some very large, round 
projecting tonsils, which give no symptoms at all, are harm- 
less. If it comes to a question of judgment on tonsils, find a 
conservative medical man and put the matter up to him with 
reference to the symptoms which it has caused. The matter of 
nasal obstruction is almost always due to conditions existing 
in early childhood. If the teeth have been kept in and the 
arches of the jaw are wide and the nostrils allowed to expand, 
the child will be all right; but if he grows up with narrow nos- 
trils or a deflected septum, which is extremely hard to cure, 
then surgical operations are not of much value, except where a 
spur forms. Just as adenoids may form in childhood, so in 
adult life there is sometimes a bony growth in the nose which 
is called a spur. It is covered with mucous membrane, like a 

15 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

sponge. When a person gets a cold this membrane fills up 
with blood and obstructs that part of the nostril. If the obstruc- 
tion is caused by a spur it is quite readily removed by the surgeon, 
who uses a tiny saw for the purpose; but if' it is an obstruction 
which is due to causes that occurred during the child's grow- 
ing period, surgical operations are not of much use. 

Q. If the tonsils have been removed is the child more apt to 
get a cold? A. I know of no reason to believe that children are 
more subject to colds after the tonsils have been removed than 
before. 

Q. How would you detect fatigue, or the symptoms of it, in an 
apparently weak worker? A. The question of detecting fatigue 
is a very difficult one. The United States Public Health Service 
is at present engaged in finding some readily recognizable symp- 
tom of fatigue. As far as the individual is concerned, I know 
of no test that will enable you and me to tell whether a man is 
tired or not, except by the way he looks and acts. I know of no 
commonly applied test for detecting fatigue. 

Q. Has the Public Health Service arrived at any standard 
of ventilation? A. None, except the common one requiring the 
air of a room to be changed every twenty minutes, and that a 
man should have two thousand cubic feet of air to breathe per 
hour. 

Q. Would you say that it would be better to have windows 
open at all times where possible, or to have them opened periodi- 
cally? A. I should say, always open — as much as is consistent 
with comfort. 



i6 



II. 



THE INJURED BODY AND ITS TREATMENT 

By Dr. Loyal A. Shoudy, Chief Surgeon, Bethlehem Steel 

Corporation 

I ONCE talked to a body of foremen. I told them I did not want 
to talk merely to men called foremen but I wanted them to go 
away after my talk with the idea that I had talked to them because 
they were fore men. If you people are safety inspectors I want 
to talk to you because you are "safe" inspectors. You have 
always regarded yourselves perhaps as inspectors of machinery 
and buildings. I wonder if you have ever regarded yourselves 
as inspectors of that machine the life of which no one has been 
able to copy ; the greatest machine that we have ever had and 
without which the industrial world could do nothing. Have you 
ever regarded yourselves as "safe" inspectors of that wonderful 
machine, the human machine? 

When you start out in any line of safety inspection, one of the 
first things you should do is to learn your job ; but I will warrant 
that there are not ten men here who have properly considered this 
subject. You have watched the machines to determine if they 
were properly guarded, but how many of you have learned before 
you started in at your jobs, something about the men and the 
women who are operating the machines? If you are going to 
make headway, before you undertake actual inspection, it is 
absolutely necessary for you to learn something about the machine 
which controls the machine which you are inspecting. There is 
a little bit more to this work than the mere safeguarding of 

17 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

machines; than merely going about to call attention to the 
fact that some place is unguarded. There is a big, broad scope of 
work for every man who is in industry. You must touch it if 
you are going to be a success in your particular line and you must 
learn the human machine. 

The Human Body Considered as a Machine 

The human machine is a delicate piece of mechanism, con- 
sider it any way you will. The entire machine is controlled by 
some vital force, just as any other machine is controlled or 
operated. The gas machine in your automobile is controlled by 
various little delicate parts. Your machine fails to work because 
the carburetor is not right. When an elevator doesn't run there 
is something wrong with the power that operates it. When a 
man doesn't work there is something wrong with his driving 
mechanism. 

To begin with, you have what the All- Wise Maker gave you — 
a body. The bones form the framework of your body. They 
are so designed that each piece fits into its particular place and 
renders some particular service. You have your head — -bone- 
encased — to protect the delicate parts within, and your arms with 
their long bones for protection and for reaching. You have 
certain joints in which it is necessary that you have free motion. 
You have a bony chest and your pelvis to protect the vital organs 
within ; and further down you have your legs. Where the bones 
come together you have very delicate joints and attached to them 
the muscles. The muscles make up the contour of the body and 
help to give it protection. Within the muscles you have an in- 
tricate system from which they are supplied with energy. There 
is that wonderful pump — the heart, from which comes the blood 
to feed the muscles ; and, finally, there are the vessels feeding the 
heart. Controlling these are the nerves, controlled, in turn, by a 
central telephone station, as it were — the brain, located in the 
head. From this central office go out impulses all over the body. 

In order that this machine may operate smoothly, you have 
enclosed in your chest a pair of lungs to take in air ; a breathing 

i8 



THE INJURED BODY AND ITS TREATMENT 

apparatus to take in oxygen to drive the body on. A little further 
down there is the digestive apparatus. Just as you must put 
fuel into any engine so must you put food into the human body, 
there to be burned and consumed. From the stomach and in- 
testinal tract the blood gets the fuel that is needed for the body. 
The human body is a perfectly wonderful machine! Just as in 
this great building there is an office with a pigeon-hole for each 
matter requiring attention there are in the office of your brain 
numerous pigeon-holes for the body to do this thing or that ; and 
just as every office building, or every system of business, is not 
developed to the same extent, so is every brain not developed to 
the same extent. By study and by work you increase the number 
of cells in the brain and in the body, just as by study and by 
work you increase your manufacturing plant. 

What Constitutes an "Injury"? 

Now what happens ? Men, in no matter what plant or in what 
kind of work, will get injured. The word "injured" has been 
torn to pieces and much misconstrued. The different compensa- 
tion laws of the various States have given different meanings 
and constructions to the word "injured." You can have more 
than one kind of an injury. You can injure a man's feelings, 
his pride, as well as his body. Sometimes when you go about 
your safety work think of this. You will see foremen and super- 
intendents, who are not of the type they should be, causing mental 
injury to the men under them just as surely as the cogwheel 
catches fingers and takes them off. There are more ways than 
one of "brow-beating" a man to get him out of a plant if you 
don't want him. V/hen you go out inspecting machines, inspect 
the human machine as well. Learn from every man with whom 
you come in contact some little thing. In this way you can help 
build a greater system of factory inspection and a greater system 
of "accident prevention." You can build all the guards you want 
but a man can deliberately set them aside unless you have gotten 
an idea into that human machine that he must guard himself to 

19 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

a certain extent. Your work will be a failure unless you get the 
power of the human machine behind it. 

Bruises, or Contusions 

What do you mean by a bruise or a contusion? They are 
simply names qualifying the big term, "injury". A contusion, 
generally speaking, is a blow to any part of the body which does 
not pierce the skin. Contusions may be of slight importance or 
of very considerable importance. Take the little boy who falls 
downstairs, bumps his head and raises a "shanty" above his eye. 
This is a contusion. It turns black and blue because the force 
of the injury — ^the blow of the head against the stairs — broke the 
numerous vessels beneath the skin. The blood extra vasating 
caused a lump. Such an injury generally becomes black and blue 
if it is in a loose part. The skin surrounding the eye is very 
loose and the blow comes in contact with the bone. If it is a 
severe contusion of the legs — parts protected by a great deal of 
muscles — ^you will not get the results just mentioned so far as 
the outward appearance is concerned. 

A bruise, however, develops and becomes black and blue later 
on. So far as bruises on the body are concerned, they may be 
trivial or they may amount to much. I have seen a man who had 
been hit in the leg by a handle that swung around and caught him, 
go on for two weeks and consider the injury as nothing very 
serious ; but I have seen such a man die because the small blood 
vessels — not the big ones — ^got broken and formed a hematoid 
condition — an infection of the blood. The man broke down, 
developed a true case of blood poisoning from infection and died. 

You doubtless have seen the man who has injured his finger by 
a hard blow — a contusion. Later you have seen him without the 
finger, or without the tip of it. An injury to the bone developed 
a felon, not large at first, but with later serious effects. One may 
get contusion on the head. It may cause a severe jar or partially 
break a bone. The injured person may become semi-conscious 
or unconscious. There are other injuries such as contusions of 

20 



THE INJURED BODY AND ITS TREATMENT 

the feet, sometimes fractures, caused by things dropping on them, 
especially in shops where heavy objects are handled. 

Cuts and Lacerations 

Now contusions are not cuts; cuts are not lacerations. The 
laceration is a wound. A contusion is not classed as a wound 
because somebody has seen fit to call a "wound" a condition in 
which the skin is pierced. From the standpoint of the piercing 
of the skin one gets the ordinary, clean cut such as can be made 
by a razor or a piece of glass. The laceration, however, is a 
jagged wound inflicted by a blunt instrument. Sometimes when 
you are inspecting guards you may see a man who has a slight 
bruise or a slight laceration, cut or wound on his hand. It is 
not safe to allow any man who has a break in his skin, no matter 
what sort of work he may be doing, to let it go untreated. I 
saw very recently a man with a finger in which he had gotten a 
little sliver of steel, about a week before he came into the dis- 
pensary. We found that the man will lose at least two-thirds of 
his finger. When I asked him what he did for it he said he had 
tried to get the splinter out with a pin. As a result the finger 
became steadily worse, growing big and bulky because it was badly 
infected. It may fall to your lot, as safety inspectors, to drive 
home a point now and then to a man or a woman working at a 
machine, if they have been so unfortunate as to suffer even a 
little prick of their fingers. It may fall to your lot to save a 
finger or hand by telling them that the tips of the fingers are very 
prone to infection, because the muscles are encased in a sheaf and 
infection spreads rapidly inside the sheaf. 

Infection the Cause of Most Bodily Ills 

In practically every place where labor is employed some degree 
of first-aid is available. From some types of lacerations and 
cuts may come infections and infection is the bug-bear of the 
entire medical profession. Take away infection and you would 
probably take away your doctors. That may sound like a big 

21 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

statement ; but look about and see how many of your diseases arc 
caused by, and your surgical operations required because of, 
infection. Ever present, in this room, in your body, are bacteria 
germs. Not all of them, but a great many of them — and by far 
the majority — are pus-producing and cause suppuration if they 
find entrance to the body through a cut. 

A machine cannot have an infection but a crack or a break 
may put a machine out of order. The human machine is subject 
to the same hazards to which your automatic machine is subject. 
Sometimes there is a break or a fracture, sometimes a cut, a 
contusion or a bruise, and sometimes an infection. When a man 
gets a serious infection it may mean the loss of a member or of 
the entire body. The parts of the human machine most prone to 
infection, so far as the workman is concerned, are his hands. 
Some of you may imagine the lungs are, and this is true in certain 
lines of work. Pneumonia is an infection, as was also the 
recent epidemic of influenza. Typhoid fever, measles and mumps 
are all infections. All of these conditions come under your 
purview as safe inspectors even though you cannot control some 
of these things as well as you can the little infections of the hand, 
the foot or the eye. If you know the living conditions of a 
man's family you sometimes can guard against tuberculosis. You 
certainly can guard against typhoid fever, because, if water is the 
source of contamination, you can guard the source. If an in- 
dividual has typhoid fever you can protect the others in your 
plant by looking up the place from which the sick man came and 
isolate the typhoid in that district. To do so is a part of your 
inspection work. If you suspect some one to have tuberculosis, 
as a good safety inspector do you permit him to remain in a 
crowded room with other workers? To do so is bad practice. 
You may not be able to say directly to this person "You have 
tuberculosis," but you can advise him to see a doctor, or, per- 
haps, advise the doctor to call him into the office and look him 
over. It is just as necessary, from the standpoint of production 
or safety, to have good human machines as good manufacturing 
machines. 

22 



THE INJURED BODY AND ITS TREATMENT 

There is a difference between infections and blood poisoning. 
So long as the condition remains local, confined to a definite 
part, it is an infection; but if the germs from this infection go 
into the general blood current so that from the infected part 
they are carried all about the body, then you have blood 
poisoning. 

Various Types of Fractures 

Whenever a machine has its shaft cut into two parts it is broken 
and useless. The fracture of a machine shaft is similiar to the 
fracture of a human bone. It is necessary for you, as a safety 
inspector, to know all about fractures. A simple fracture is a 
break in the bone and nothing more, while a compound fracture 
is one where the bone is not only broken but comes through the 
skin so that there is a communication from the outside down to 
the seat of the fracture. If a bone is splintered in many pieces 
near the same point and communicating with each other doctors 
call this a "comminuted" fracture. A "green-stick" fracture is 
a partial fracture where the break is not clear through but is 
incomplete. This occurrs mostly in early life when the bones 
are elastic. 

Safety inspectors should have a practical knowledge of first- 
aid. You should know that if a man has a broken or fractured 
leg, without any bones sticking through, nobody should be allowed 
to pick him up and drag him to one side. Most of the fractures 
that occur do not break in a straight line but in points, so that 
if you pick a man up and let his leg dangle the bone may come 
through the muscles and skin of his leg. 

Fundamental Principles in First Aid Work 

You should know shock when you see it and its proper treat- 
ment. You should be able to recognize hemorrhage and know how 
it should be controlled. These are two of the most important 
things in first-aid. Another vital thing is to know how to per- 
form artificial respiration. If you know these three things your 
common sense will tell you what to do in any other emergency. 

23 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

Treatment of Shock 

Shock can be produced in numerous ways but the result is 
always the same. Shock is more or less of a depression of the 
nervous system. It is difficult to define it in any other words. 
We have surgical shock ; shock from fainting ; shock from blows. 
What must be done in case of shock ? The first thing is to make 
the man comfortable. If a man is shocked he is cold and clammy ; 
if he is completely shocked he is either unconscious or semi-con- 
scious and his pulse is fast and weak. He doesn't know where 
he is and is dazed. The most natural thing to do is to pick him 
up ; it is also the worst thing to do. Make him comfortable where 
he is and apply heat to get him warm. If there is no injury to 
his head then lower it. In shock the blood leaves the brain and 
goes into the abdominal muscles. Shock is a sort of "anemia" 
of the brain. 

Good treatment for fainting is to set the patient in a chair and 
bend him forward as far as possible, force his head down and 
hold it there. This procedure forces the blood out of the abdo- 
men and it goes back to his head where it belongs. After you 
have made the man comfortable, apply heat, using blankets or 
coats. If you have reason to suspect that there may be hemor- 
rhage, or a broken leg, look out for those things and don't be 
afraid to look. 

Treatment of Hemorrhage 

Hemorrhage may be of three kinds: Capillary hemorrhage, 
not usually serious; venous, from the veins; and arterial, from 
the arteries. The last is the most serious form of hemorrhage. 
Learn to distinguish between arterial and venous hemorrhage. 
In arterial bleeding the blood spurts out in jets ; in venous hemor- 
rhage the blood flows in a slow, steady stream and is dark red or 
purple in color; in capillary hemorrhage the blood simply oozes 
out from the general surface of the wound. 

I recall a case where a man had greatly distended varicose 
veins on his legs. I was called up and told the man was in shock. 

24 



THE INJURED BODY AND ITS TREATMENT 

The men had looked him over and reported that there was ap- 
parently nothing wrong with him. When I arrived I cut open 
his trousers legs and found big varicose veins with the blood ooz- 
ing out. So simple a thing as pressure with the finger stopped the 
trouble. Such bleeding is easily stopped in the arms and legs 
by a slight pressure — but there are instances where men have died 
from a rupture of varicose veins. 

Arterial hemorrhage may cause shock, so it is necessary to 
effect a control of the hemorrhage at once. Use pressure but do 
not get into your head the idea that you must always have a 
tourniquet. If you need a tourniquet don't wait for somebody 
to get one — make it. You have your hands and you know that 
pressure is the one thing that will stop hemorrhage. A tourni- 
quet will, of course, stop the hemorrhage, but if it is absolutely 
necessary, use your hands or anything else that is quickly 
available. 

Artificial Respiration 

The other important thing to know is the method in artificial 
respiration and how to perform it when the time comes. Don't 
lose time. In electrical shock, gas asphyxiation, drowning, or 
any other shock, artificial respiration, to be of any value, must be 
done on the spot. Artificial respiration is done to get air into the 
lungs whether mechanical or manual means are employed. The 
artificial devices are numerous but the ones that I recommend — 
and you can always have them with you — are your hands, your 
head, and yourself. The main thing is to get air into, and out of, 
the lungs properly. 

You may know what is called the "Sylvester" method. You 
may also know the "Schaefer," or "prone pressure," method. 
The "Schaefer" method is considered the best, and you will get 
from the book by Dr. Charles A. Lauffer, Medical Director, 
Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, the only 
correct statement that is in print giving accurate directions as to 
the proper manner in which to administer the "Schaefer" method. 
There is not a man in the room who can stand performing fifteen 

25 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

minutes artificial respiration by the "prone pressure" method 
from the elbow alone, but he can stand hours by using a straight 
and rigid arm. 

In performing the "Schaefer" method first place the patient 
prone ; that is, flat out on his belly, face down, with his arms ex- 
tended full out in front of and above his head to give the fullest 
capacity of the lungs. Turn the head to one side. One does not 
need to tie the tongue or to keep pulling it out. With the head 
on its side and with the man face down, the tongue falls forward 
and out of the throat of its own weight. Second, get astride of 
the man and fix yourself so that each of your knees comes close 
beside each of his hip bones. Third, place the heel of each hand 
with thumbs and fingers close together and wrists facing each 
other so that the hands come in contact with the lowest, or the 
eleventh and twelfth, ribs on each side of the backbone. Bring 
the full weight of your body upon your hands without bending 
the elbows. By compressing these ribs the kidneys and other 
organs in the abdominal cavity are shoved forward and upward, 
increasing the intra-abdominal pressure. The organs in the ab- 
dominal cavity move under such pressure. The liver is forced 
up against the diaphragm on one side and the stomach, spleen and 
intestines on the other side. Pushing the diaphragm upward forces 
the air out of the lungs. When pressure is removed these organs 
return into place. In comes the air and you have performed the 
breathing operation. The necessary thing is to perform the 
movements in a methodical way and at the rate of normal breath- 
ing; that is, from i8 to 20 times per minute. Use a watch if 
necessary; follow your own rate of breathing; keep your head; 
and keep at the process, in spite of evident failure, from two to 
four hours. Remove as much clothing as possible, especially 
from the upper part of the body, without allowing the body to 
become chilled. Do not remove the clothes by undressing. Cut 
them off to avoid delay. A coat or blanket can be lightly thrown 
over the body to keep it warm. 

If you are going to get good results by applying artificial res- 
piration in cases of electric shock don't wait : begin immediately. 

26 




First Position 




Second Position 



^ 




Courtesy National Electric Light Association 
Third Position 



PRONE PRESSURE METHOD OF RESUCITATION 



THE INJURED BODY AND ITS TREATMENT 

Do not think it is always necessary to contact as high as 500 volts 
to get electric shock. As few as no or 220 will give shock as 
quickly, and there are many cases on record where men have died 
from no and less. Shock may even be fatal from voltages as 
low as 50, and it is usually the lower voltages that cause the 
greater number of fatalities. In electric shock an alternating 
current is more dangerous than a direct current. 

Heat Stroke and Heat Exhaustion 

In connection with artificial respiration we must also consider 
giving aid in cases of sunstroke, heat stroke, and heat exhaustion, 
especially in the summer time. You should know the difference 
between heat exhaustion and heat or sunstroke. Heat stroke and 
heat exhaustion are not the same. Sunstroke and heat stroke 
occur from working in excessive heat near furnaces or in the 
direct heat of the sun. It makes a great difference whether one 
is exhausted by the heat or is "struck" by the heat. In heat 
stroke and sunstroke the temperature is high, the face is flushed, 
and the breathing hard. 

What do you have in cases of heat exhaustion? You have a 
man who is "down and out," shocked, cold, clammy. With heat 
stroke the man is hot and warm to the point of perspiration. 

The treatment of the cases is very different. What causes these 
conditions? In the wonderful central office of which I spoke — 
the brain, there is a center that controls the heat of the body. 
If the heat outside the body becomes greater than the mechanism 
in the brain can take care of, the control of heat throughout the 
entire body is destroyed. While working a man is using energy 
which must be supplied just as fuel is supplied to the engine. 
Heat exhaustion occurs in men who do not properly care for 
themselves and is caused by the continuous working of the mus- 
cles of the arms, legs and other parts of the body, without enough 
heat to supply them. When there is too much heat in the body 
you have heat or sunstroke. Always apply cold. If you have 
nothing else available turn on the hose. Loosen the clothing, 
shoes, collar — anything tight and constricting. That is an im- 

27 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

portant thing in the treatment of shock. Make a correct dis- 
tinction between heat exhaustion and heat stroke: In the heat 
stroke, apply cold; in heat exhaustion, apply heat. Heat ex- 
haustion is dangerous, far more so than sunstroke. More per- 
sons recover from sunstroke and heat stroke than from heat ex- 
haustion. Heat exhaustion is one of the forms of shock. Apply 
external heat; get heat wherever you can, but get it. Don't at- 
tempt to make a man swallow anything in such cases but get a 
doctor as quickly as possible. 

Muscular Exhaustion 

There is another kind of exhaustion that frequently occurs: 
muscular exhaustion or the so-called "muscular cramps." Men 
who work around furnaces want ginger, sometimes known as 
"Jamaica" ginger. In the majority of cases it is a habit into 
which the men have grown and they will not stay at such work 
without ginger. Jamaica ginger usually possesses alcohol and 
the temporary stimulation is what they want; but for muscular 
cramps it is useless. In muscular cramps the muscles have been 
called upon to perform certain acts until they have become fa- 
tigued and worn out. With this continuous demand upon them 
the muscles have lost all their power to react and go into con- 
traction of themselves. It may be the muscles in the arms, abdo- 
men or intestines that become tied up in knots with these cramps 
and the convulsion is as dangerous in one case as in the other. 
Make a man comfortable by applying heat and get a doctor as 
quickly as you can. Don't let a man go home if he has had bad 
cramps; he may die if he has not received proper attention. 

Auto-intoxication 

Auto-intoxication results from a reabsorption of the waste 
products which are continuously given off from the body and from 
muscles. When this waste is not eUminated from the body it 
goes back into the circulation and self-infection results. 

28 



THE INJURED BODY AND ITS TREATMENT 

The Plant Hospital 

It is hard for a safety inspector to inspect a hospital, because 
there are only a few things you do know and many things you 
do not know. A man knows, however, when a hospital or dis- 
pensary is clean and when it is dirty. If any place should be 
inviting it should be a working dispensary. The doctor should 
be most particular in handling the class of men who come to 
him because his success will depend upon how well he holds them. 
The mere fact that he can set a bone won't make him success- 
ful ; he must get the men in the plant with him just as the fore- 
man must. If you have nurses in your plant they must not have 
long faces, but meet the man cheerfully and from the minute he 
comes in let him know that it is their business to attend to his 
injury. A workman once said to a nurse, "I like to come up to 
get the smile." Don't put the smile above ability but get the 
nurse with the smile and one having a sympathetic human touch 
with the injured man. 

The Importance of Keeping the Human Machine Fit 

There is a certain psychology of the mind over the body in all 
medical work. You make a study of machines. Never lose sight 
of the fact that the human machine is also to be watched and 
studied. Don't be a fault-finder or you will fail. Tackle the 
work in another way. If you find a man who is continually doing 
things he shouldn't do, lead him to see that what he is doing 
wrongly aflfects him directly. Lead him to see that if he jeopar- 
dizes himself he also jeopardizes his wife and his children. 

Before you construct a building you have your engineers make 
your drawings but how many plants to-day go over the human 
machine to determine if they are putting it in the place where it 
can give the greatest production most easily ? Every time a new 
building is planned it is with a definite purpose ; in the purchase 
of new machines they are obtained for a definite object and 
placed with a view to effective production. There are very few 
concerns, however, that place their men, the human machines, 

29 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

with the same regard that they do the other machines. If you 
can, driv^ home to employers the fact that the time is coming 
when a man is not going to be placed merely because he can 
work, but because of the fact that as a human machine he can 
be trained and adapted to his particular work, just as the machines 
are studied and placed on the plans before the building is con- 
structed. If you would know your job you must know the human 
machine and have an interest in it. 

Sometimes a man will want to know why we have inspection. 
The old idea was to find a place where blame for an accident 
could be laid ; now we try to keep blame from everybody by 
preventing accidents. Merely condemning things accomplishes 
nothing. You must get the men who are doing the work inter- 
ested in helping you do yours, because they know that in your 
work of safety inspection you are trying to protect them as well 
as hold your own job. 

Questions and Answers 

Q. In hemorrhage of the nose — "nose bleed" — where should 
the pressure be applied to stop it? A. Most nose bleeding can 
be controlled by pressure. More bleeding comes from the an- 
terior, or front, part of the nose than from the back part. The 
best way to stop bleeding, as a first-aid measure, is pressure right 
up to the bone. Sometimes the bleeding comes from below and 
from the inner side of the nostrils. In that case a little pressure 
across the nostrils will stop it. I saw a lady do it one day with 
a closepin. 

Q. Does the chewing of tobacco in any way help a man en- 
gaged in industrial work? A. Only psychologically. There is 
nothing in it other than that a man who has been chewing all 
his life when deprived of tobacco cannot keep his mind on his job. 

Q. What would you recommend for fits? A. A person may 
be suffering from epilepsy or any other sort of fit, coma or un- 
consciousness. In a factory where girls are employed it some- 
times happens that one will be troubled with hysteria. Hysteria 

30 



THE INJURED BODY AND ITS TREATMENT 

is a. disease and anybody who has true hysteria is to be pitied. 
There are different kinds of fits : hysteria, epilepsy and catalepsy. 
If a person who has hysteria is going to fall you will notice that 
he or she will come down, nearly always, on a chair or couch. 
When a girl is hysterical put her in a quiet, dark room and leave 
her alone. She will come out all right. A person with epilepsy 
drops, relaxed. I have seen a man fracture his skull and die 
from falling in an attack of epilepsy. The one thing in its treat- 
ment is to look out for the tongue. See that the patient cannot 
bite his tongue. Don't use your finger to protect the tongue ; use 
something else. Don't "scrap" with patients. So long as they 
do not hurt themselves during the convulsions let them kick. To 
try to control these things makes them worse. After the kicking 
stops they will go off into a long sleep and are practically all 
right. Use a spoon to protect the teeth. Do not break them 
unless absolutely necessary. A bandage is a good thing to get 
into a patient's mouth to bite on. 

Q. Is there any advantage in the quick release of the pressure 
on the ribs in the "Schaefer" method? A. Yes, because in the 
quick release of the pressure the organs inside have a longer time 
in which to come back to the normal position. 



31 



III. 

(A) PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR MEN 

By R. M. Little, Director, Safety Institute of America 

WE WEAR clothing for two principal reasons: First, for 
protection and, second, for comfort and appearance. Man 
first wore clothes to protect himself from the thorns of the jungle. 
Today he must protect himself from modern machinery and in- 
dustrial conditions, as well as from the weather conditions of 
various climates and seasons. Clothing is a necessary part of 
our protection because we are not constituted by nature to get 
along wholly without it. This is a basic fact. Both protection 
and appearance enter into the question of protective clothing for 
workmen. The use of special protective clothing in industry is 
increasing. A great deal of study is being given to the subject. 
You remember it was said that "An army makes progress on 
its stomach." This was a cryptic saying to emphasize the im- 
portance of the commissary department. The well-fed army 
keeps up its morale and is able to go forward and win battles. 
It has also been said that Wellington won his peninsular cam- 
paign because he had the best-shod army in Europe. His soldiers 
were well-provided with boots and shoes and were able to stand 
the wear and strain of the march with their feet firmly planted 
upon the ground. Each of these statements is an over-emphasis. 
No army could altogether make progress upon its stomach, al- 
though it will not make much progress without a good commis- 
sary department; nor would an army make great progress with 
good boots or shoes alone. It must have a much fuller and more 
effective equipment. These two statements emphasize, however, 
fundamental facts for the army of workmen; namely, that they 



PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR MEN 

make progress industrially by having their bodies well-nourished 
and properly clothed and protected. Workmen poorly fed and 
under-nourished are without vitality and strength. They cannot 
do good productive work. 

Old Clothes 

Perhaps the major part of the workmen in America wear their 
old clothes while at work. This is a custom. They purchase a 
new suit and while it is fresh and attractive in appearance they 
wear it on Sundays, holidays and special occasions; then, when 
it is becoming worn and faded they wear it at their work in the 
factory, mill or mine. This is true of hats, caps, suits, shirts, 
gloves, hose and shoes. Only in some trades has there developed 
a distinct garb and apparel designed to meet working conditions. 
When the importance of suitable protective clothing for work 
becomes fully recognized, something of the attention will be given 
to the subject that is now bestowed upon the question of clothes 
for people generally. One of the greatest industries of our coun- 
try is the clothing industry. The manufacture, style, wearing 
qualities and appearance of clothes give employment to hundreds 
of thousands of men and women. The manufacture of suitable 
material, its design and make for various occupations, is still in 
its infancy. The trades will develop as employers and workmen 
become intelligent upon the question and furnish a growing 
market. 

Special Clothes 

The adaptation of clothes to certain purposes is well illustrated 
by one of our best athletic sports, baseball. Did you ever see a 
baseball player who was not attired for the game ? Great progress 
has been made in this science of clothing for particular under- 
takings. The soldiers look fit in their smart uniforms. The color, 
cut and fit of the tunic and trousers, the closely fitting puttees and 
leggings, the strong, easy shoes for the feet, and the serviceable 
cap, hat or helmet, have all been designed not only for utiHty but 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

to develop a soldierly bearing and manner. Uniforms contribute 
to the morale of the army. These illustrations serve to call at- 
tention to the principle that a workman's clothing needs always 
to be adapted to his body and his occupation. 

Material 

Work clothing may be made of any material that is suitable 
for the particular work in which men are engaged. The standard 
material in our country, because of the climate and its durability, 
is wool; but in the South and during the hot weather of the 
North, much cotton is used. The khaki fabric makes excellent 
garments for both men and women, and its color suits the pur- 
pose of industry. Its strength and durability are considerations 
in its favor. Blue is also a suitable color for work clothes. Let 
there develop a great market for standard cloth for work clothes 
and it can be furnished at a moderate price. 

Appearance 

Work garments should be neat in appearance, kept in good 
repair and frequently cleaned. The last consideration is quite 
important for men engaged in dirty work. They especially should 
have good washing facilities, both for their bodies and their 
clothes, and lockers in which to keep their garments. Labor 
turnover is probably higher in "dirty jobs" than in any other 
process of a plant. The innate rebellion which men feel towards 
dirt is the principal reason. To ofifset this fact their garments 
should be frequently washed and cleaned and made as present- 
able as possible. Because of the necessities of a job, w^orkmen 
may temporarily suffer their clothing and persons to be soiled, 
but their self-respect will soon rebel if they must don dirty clothes 
day after day when they begin work. Employers are wise who 
give particular attention to the work clothes of those who must 
do the dirty jobs. Let them come to and go from their employ- 
ment clean and attractive in appearance and you will preserve 
their self-respect. 

34 



PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR MEN 
The Psychology of Clothes 

Perhaps there Is nothing on the outside of a person in which 
can be read the psychology of the mind more accurately than in 
his clothes. They are not an infallible guide, for occasionally a 
genius is indifferent to dress, but the vast majority of people are 
not. In fact one of the principal interests of life, to many people, 
is the question of the clothes which affect their outward appear- 
ance and impression upon others. Not superficial and thought- 
less people alone are concerned about clothes, but also men and 
women of thought and character, because in one's attire some- 
thing of character is revealed. This principle should be recog- 
nized in the material, color, design and fit of work clothes. It 
cannot be safely disregarded in work clothes for the women, and 
will be an advantage in the selection of clothes for male em- 
ployees. 

Suitable versus Unsuitable Clothing 

The economic value of suitable clothing for workers, with re- 
gard to both safety and appearance, in contrast with unsuitable 
clothing, can readily be seen by a visit to a factory or mill where 
careful attention is given to the subject, and to a workshop where 
the question is allowed to take care of itself. In one, the work- 
men in their snug, neat garments, caps, overalls and jumpers, 
sensible broad-toed and low-heeled shoes, move about at their 
work with ease and comfort. All their movements harmonize 
with the rhythm and power of the factory, whereas in another 
mill where no attention is given to the subject of suitable work 
garments, and the workmen make their own selections and wear 
their old clothes, there may be seen all sorts of headwear, jum- 
pers and overalls, shirts and trousers, belts and suspenders, torn 
and ragged garments, loose ends, frayed edges, shoes worn down 
with sloppy heels, men walking on the sides of worn-out shoes, 
constantly in danger of being caught in the machinery or of slip- 
ping and tripping and being seriously injured. In one factory 

35 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

there is good housekeeping and properly attired workpeople and 
harmony between machinery and men and the central purpose of 
the enterprise. In the other factory there is a general unkempt' 
appearance of the shop and workers and a lower industrial mo- 
rale. It is obvious, without an invoice, in which mill the produc- 
tion is greater and better. 

Cost of Clothing 

Workmen's clothing ought not to be expensive. Certainly it 
should not be if they are to pay for it themselves. Even if the 
employers pay for the clothing, the cost should be moderate. 
There are various manufacturers of workmen's clothing who 
meet the need in a practical way at a reasonable cost. Many well- 
equipped firms have found it advisable to furnish their workmen 
with suitable clothing, while others arrange to have the clothing 
supplied at wholesale price. Perhaps the latter is the sounder 
policy, except in special cases. Generally workmen want to pay 
for what they wear, but there are some protective articles which 
should always be furnished by the management, as goggles, hel- 
mets, respirators, and masks To assure the workmen securing 
their clothes and shoes of standard quality at a reasonable price, a 
company should keep these supplies in a store or commissary. 

Types of Clothing 

The best type of clothing for factory work is the jumper and 
overall of one piece, reasonably snug, but loose enough to af- 
ford free play of all the muscles. The garment should fit well 
around the neck, wrists and ankles and great care should be taken 
that there are no loose flaps that can be caught in the machinery. 
Neckties should not be allowed to be worn in the factories unless 
they are entirely covered by the jumper or vest. If there are 
loose parts of clothing, such as dangling sleeves, neckties or even 
the flap of a trouser or anything of that kind in close proximity 
to machinery, there is naturally great danger that these loose ends 
will come in contact with revolving machinery before the work- 

36 



PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR MEN 

man realizes it and he may be drawn in and badly injured. All 
these little appendages on clothing should be entirely eliminated. 
Unless exposed to the weather or cutting particles the sleeves 
may well be shortened at the elbow, as there is great danger of 
the long sleeve catching and drawing the arm into the machinery 
and crushing it. When it is necessary to protect the forearm 
from heat or cold or cutting particles, the jumper sleeve may be 
of full length or a woolen stocking drawn over the arm, or an 
armlet made of sheepskin with the wool on the surface. This 
latter protection for men handling heavy, sharp material has been 
found quite practicable. 

Gloves 

A workman's hands are next to his eyes in importance. In 
certain jobs he needs protection for his hands, but gloves ought 
not to be worn around machinery unless it is an unusually ex- 
posed place. This protection had better not be a glove but a mitt, 
because the latter can be removed more quickly if caught in the 
machinery. Men handling heavy and rough material usually em- 
ploy a pair of leather hand-clasps studded with ribbons of steel 
which afford protection and wear well. In hot shops, to protect 
the hands from heat or the splashing of hot metals or acids, asbes- 
tos gloves or mitts are suitable. Many different types of them 
are on the market at reasonable prices. Leather gloves have their 
appropriate use in the handling of material, climbing ladders and 
handling heavy objects. Linemen especially need to be careful 
concerning their hands and the best protection thus far devel- 
oped is rubber gloves. To those exposed to high tension electri- 
cal apparatus, hand protection is a question of life or death, for, 
unless the hands are properly protected the workmen are in dan- 
ger of coming in contact with a high voltage which may result in 
a serious shock or death. Sometimes a heavy gauntlet rubber 
glove is worn with a thinner glove inside to take up the moisture 
and make it more comfortable. When rubber gloves are sub- 
ject to rough wear they can be worn inside of leather gloves. In 
order that all workmen may be protected in the electrical trades 

37 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

who are exposed to current hazards rubber gloves and insulated 
rubber shoes should be provided by the employer. When pur- 
chased, the gloves should be carefully inspected and put through 
a scientific test to see that they are perfect. After being tested 
each pair of gloves should be placed in an envelope and sealed 
and dated and put in a receptacle for a particular man. All gloves 
which are in use should be re-examined frequently and no in- 
dustry is doing right by its linemen unless their gloves are ex- 
amined at least every week. The workmen should examine their 
gloves themselves every time they put them on. Scrupulous care 
alone will prevent serious accidents. A workman put on his rub- 
ber gloves without examining them carefuly and they had not 
been recently examined by the management. He grasped a wire 
and a voltage of 3,000 passed through his body, resulting in his 
death. An examination of his gloves revealed that one of the 
index fingers had not been fully covered, a small hole being found 
in his glove. Inspectors can render useful service to factories 
and to workmen by inquiring particularly about the gloves which 
are being worn by linemen and those working with electrical 
apparatus. 

Head Protection 

Derby hats ought not to be worn, or any hats that are stiiif and 
unyielding. An ordinary close-fitting cap will protect the head 
from slight blows or falling objects and will keep dust and dirt 
from the hair. When there is a considerable hazard, however, 
heavy helmets are desirable to protect the head from force of 
blows. The question of headwear is not so important for men as 
for women working in factories. 

Shoes. 

Suitable shoes are one of the necessary parts of a workman's 
clothing to protect him from injury. The feet should be com- 
fortably encased in a good pair of shoes that have low, broad 
heels, wide toes and heavy soles made of thick leather having a 

38 



PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR MEN 

measure of flexibility and which cause the workman to feel that 
all of his bodily strength rests upon his feet with comfort. Thick 
soles prevent nails or other sharp objects from penetrating the 
feet. Reinforced, boxed toes prevent toe accidents. This pro- 
tection to the feet is especially necessary in foundries, and where 
men are handling heavy objects. Foundrymen and all who are 
near molten metal and acids should wear the "Congress" or gaiter 
shoe, instead of laced or button shoes, because if the acid or 
molten metals should fall upon the feet the "Congress" shoes can 
be drawn off more quickly than the button or laced shoes. 
"Protec-toe" shoes are quite necessary for all workmen exposed 
to falling objects from handling material. It is remarkable, the 
number of foot and toe accidents which occur because of falling 
materials and which could largely be prevented by wearing shoes 
which have a strong, boxed toe, re-enforced by heavy leather or 
metal inside of the toe of the shoe which makes it stiff and un- 
yielding to ordinary blows. These shoes have become very popu- 
lar with workmen and it is good business policy for the manage- 
ment to see that the men can secure them at wholesale price. 

Leggings 

Those who are exposed to molten metal, cinders or splashing 
acids, need to wear leggings. These may be made of chrome 
leather, fastened at the back of the leg with a snap, or they may 
be made of asbestos. Chrome leather makes the best leggings, but 
they are more expensive than canvas or asbestos, although much 
more durable. The chief value of the asbestos legging is in its 
heat-resisting qualities. Care should be exercised that there be 
no projecting buckles, buttons or clasps on the leggings because 
molten metal or acids are liable to lodge upon them. Small, in- 
visible clasps should be used to fasten the leggings. 

Aprons 

In some occupations it is necessary for the workmen to wear 
aprons, but care must be taken lest the aprons be caught in ma- 

39 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

chinery. Leather aprons to the knees are durable and asbestos 
aprons' for those in hot shops are suitable. It is well to have the 
bib and the apron of separate pieces and not fastened so tightly 
about the body but that the workman can free himself from the 
apron in an emergency. 

Safety Belts 

Safety belts are necessary for all employees in elevated posi- 
tions and especially for linemen. All safety belts should be peri- 
odically examined whether furnished by the employer or by the 
employee. Finger rings should not be worn by workmen in fac- 
tories, especially around machinery or wires. Nor should cellu- 
loid collars be worn, or caps with visors of celluloid. These are 
inflammable and liable to cause serious burns. 

Discussions, Questions and Answers 

Head Protection: By Mr. Walter G. King, Vice-President, 
Julius King Optical Company 

A protective mask should be worn by iron and cinder men 
around factory cupolas and blast furnaces, by men who work with 
hot babbitt, who pour lead joints on cast iron pipe, and in many 
other occupations where the eyes are exposed to injury from 
flying metal, cinders, or scales. A suitable mask is made of wire 
cloth with adjustable cloth cap, and a full fireproof apron ex- 
tending over the chest and protecting the neck. The eyes of the 
wearer are safeguarded by strong, clear optical glass. A new 
model of this babbitting mask provides for an extension over the 
back of the head to which is attached a fireproofed apron. These 
improvements eliminate the possibility of workmen being burned 
by splashes of metal behind the head. 

A late development in head and eye protection is a face mask 
that is always on duty; it is light and durable and may be in- 
stantly adjusted to its positions of "on guard" or "at rest." A 

40 




Protective Helmet for Use of Arc Welders 



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Mask of Wire Cloth with Adjustable Cap and Apron over Neck 
AND Chest for Protection in Babbitting and Similar Operations 



PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR MEN 

model with screens at the side is particularly valuable for all em- 
ployees exposed to dangerous splashings of molten metals, acids 
and caustic solutions or to radiant heat. This mask affords pro- 
tection especially to hearth melters, helpers and cinder snappers, 
hot metal cranemen and ladlemen, foundry cupola men and pour- 
ers, rolling mill heaters and furnace men, roll hands (particu- 
larly at blooming mills because of flying cinders), crucible steel 
melters, puddlers and bulldozers. Because of its insidious nature 
the hazard of intense light or glare given off by incandescent 
gases or metals is considered by some authorities as being greater 
than that from foreign bodies. A model without side screens is 
intended for acetylene welders. There is ample ventilation, so 
the lenses do not become clouded. 

Ultra-violet rays which are present in the manufacture and 
working of iron and steel, are of grave danger to the eyesight as 
they are invisible. Ultra-violet tends to destroy animal tissue. 
The eye is incapable of selecting a color to protect against rays 
which cannot be seen. Ultra-violet and infra-red rays are in- 
visible. When light passes through a colored lens it neutralizes 
or cuts out certain visible and invisible rays. When these dan- 
gerous light rays are present in injurious amounts, correct lenses 
must be used. Dangerous light waves are present in the working 
of molten iron or steel and in any incandescent material where the 
temperature is 2000° F., or more. At the minimum temperature, 
only a slightly colored lens is necessary to relieve eye strain. The 
ultra-violet light in the acetylene flame is a direct menace to 
vision. 

An arc welder's helmet is constructed throughout of black fibre, 
which is a non-conductor of electricity and much cooler than any 
other material that can be used, and weighs but 23 ounces com- 
plete with the lenses. By means of the slotted pivotal connec- 
tion between the skullcap and the curved sides, the helmet can 
be moved from operative to inoperative position without removal 
from the head. This feature is a great convenience, especially to 
arc-welders and furnace workers, who require a clear and unob- 
structed view of their work from time to time. It is particularly 

41 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

useful from a safety standpoint, should the wearer be working 
under hazardous conditions. 

Shoes: By Mr. Alfred W. Jansen, Safety Engineer, 
New York Navy Yard 

Our first thought concerning shoes was for the foundry where 
we had more accidents to the feet than in any other place, due 
to the pouring of molten metal or dropping of heavy castings. 
In the New York Navy Yard during the year 191 8 we had 21 
accidents in foundries, but none of them resulted in foot in- 
juries. In the foundry we had no toe accidents at all during that 
year and it was the only division in which we used the "Protec- 
toe" shoes. We decided to try out a "Protec-toe" shoe for every 
worker and we got in touch with the manufacturer who made a 
shoe with a protected, broad toe, flat heel and chrome leather sole. 
During the year 191 8 we had 147 toe accidents in the Yard 
which could have been prevented if proper shoes had been worn, 
and it was supposed that during the next year with these shoes 
in service this hazard would be materially reduced. 

Q. Do the men wear laced shoes? A. We do not allow the 
men in the foundries to wear a laced or button shoe. If there 
is a severe burn in pouring metal, you have to get the shoe off 
immediately. The "Congress" or gaiter shoe is the type to have 
for protection against molten metal. If a shoe were laced up and 
a man were burned you would have to cut the laces and that 
takes too much time. The "Congress" or gaiter shoe ought always 
to be worn in hot shops. 

Q. Are the toes of the shoes reinforced and do you find them 
adequate? A. Yes, there is a steel cap inside of the toe and 
you can drop almost anything on it and it will not crush the toe. 
I feel sure that the 147 accidents would not have occurred if the 
men had worn protective shoes. In addition to the shoes that 
ought to be worn in the foundries, the men should wear leggings, 
asbestos leggings, which are adapted to that work, especially dur- 
ing the time of pouring metal. The legging that is best suited 
to foundry use is one that is open in the back and is secured to 

42 




WoRN-OuT Shoes that Distort the Feet and Offer Little or No 
Protection against Conditions Frequently Found in Factories 




Special Types of Footwear Which Meet the Dangerous Conditions 
Found in Work Places 

1-2. Rubber overshoes for use in wet places or in presence of chemicals destructive to 

leather. 3. Foundryman's Congress shoe without lacing or box toe prevents molten metal 

reaching foot. 4. Foundryman's Congress shoe with reinforced box toe to prevent toes from 

injury. 5. Heavy work shoe with reinforced box toe. 



PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR MEN 

the calf of the leg with a clip, so that the legging can be quickly 
pulled off in case of a burn. Leggings for foundry use must be 
without straps so that no metal can adhere to any offset. 

Respirators: Mr. James L. Gernon, First Deputy Commissioner, 
N. Y. State Industrial Commission 

Our experience with ordinary respirators is that they are 
fastened on the wall instead of a man's face. Due to the fact 
that the men would not wear them our Bureau of Industrial 
Hygiene designed a simple device which they would wear. It is 
made of cotton-batting or clean waste. Good sterilized cotton 
batting is sufficient, and over that a piece of cheesecloth may be 
wrapped. I was in a place the other day where they were making 
medicine and where they were using drugs that had formerly 
caused the girls to sneeze. Every girl who was packing the 
product was then using one of these home-made respirators. They 
cost practically nothing and men will wear these where they 
won't wear the patented articles. We found that this respirator 
is more effective and does not become unsanitary. It conforms 
to our first instinct of protection and a man or woman using it 
can change it as many times as seems desirable. 

Q. How many thicknesses do you recommend? 

A. Two thicknesses of the cotton. 

Q. How about fumes going through that? 

A. I have not tested that myself; if the fumes are very pene- 
trating you would probably need something more substantial. 

Mr. John Roach, Bureau of Hygiene and Sanitation, New Jer- 
sey State Department of Labor: I would like to say that I don't 
place much dependence on respirators where dangerous fumes 
are to be avoided. At least that has been my experience and I 
believe it has been the experience in all other States where many 
poisonous substances are used that give off deadly vapor, that 
you cannot depend on respirators at all of the ordinary type, and 
you cannot really depend on respirators where you use a neutral- 
izing agent unless it is of the modern type developed during the 

43 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

world war. I believe that previous to the time that trench war- 
fare became general in the war in Europe, there was not really 
a respirator that was effective for dangerous fumes; but, of 
course, with the development of poisonous gases many neutral- 
izing agents were discovered and applied to protect soldiers from 
the gases. Just how much headway has been made towards pro- 
viding that same kind of a gas mask for industrial workers is a 
matter of conjecture. 

Some twelve or fourteen months ago I was in a plant in South- 
ern New Jersey where they were attempting to devise a gas mask 
that would be useful for all manner of poisonous vapors. I am 
not at all sure that that kind of a mask has been devised, or that 
it is possible to use a single mask for all purposes, but I would 
say that it is really criminal to advise the use of the ordinary type 
of respirator in cases where workmen are exposed to fumes. 

Within the last four or five years I have visited plants where 
the men were exposed to harmful vapors — not always deadly in 
their character but always extremely active — and the men were 
advised by the foremen to use the ordinary muzzle type of mask 
that Mr. Gernon has said makes a workman look like a bulldog. 
That kind of a mask is extremely uncomfortable. You cannot 
stand it for more than a few minutes, and it does not give any 
relief whatever when you encounter poisonous gases. Probably, 
in cases of that kind, the right thing to use would be a helmet 
with an oxygen tank, so that a complete and uncontaminated sup- 
ply of atmosphere would be furnished the workman. You might 
have to go into a cellar where ammonia vapors prevail ; you might 
wish to clean out the benzol tank or some vessel containing coal 
tar products or work in connection with the die industry where 
poisonous vapors are generated. In such cases a helmet would 
be useful, but I do say, that instead of trying to depend upon a 
mask, or helmet, we should try to collect the vapors at their 
point of origin and remove them there, or better yet, we should 
try to prevent them from escaping into the breathing atmosphere 
of the workroom. It is remarkable how much you can do to 
prevent vapors from rising. 

44 



(B) SUITABLE WORK GARMENTS FOR 
WOMEN IN INDUSTRY* 

By Adelaide Wood Guthrie, Editor, Safety Institute of America 

THE wearing apparel of both men and women, of savage 
tribes, semi-civilized and civilized races, may be considered 
"protective" in the sense that garments are worn, primarily, as 
protection against the sun's rays, chilling rains, winds and snow ; 
against sand-storms, sharp-edged rocks and the dangers of dense 
forests ; in short, against seasonal changes of temperature, climatic 
and geographical conditions in all parts of the world. In addition 
to defending himself against the forces and phenomena of nature, 
man has ever sought protection against the hazards of his voca- 
tions. Thus, as an ancient warrior he engaged in combat equipped 
with helmet, shield and greaves; as a mediaeval knight, armed 
cap-a-pie he tested his skill in the lists ; as smith and armorer, he 
put on his leather jerkin or apron as protection against the heat 
of his forge, the sparks from his anvil and the rough material 
being worked upon it ; and so one might run through the martial 
and peaceful occupations of mankind to find that in all times the 
struggle for supremacy or subsistence has been accompanied by 
cautious plans for self-protection. 

With the introduction of labor-saving machinery, embodying 
the mechanical principles already known to man in his manual 
operations, the problem of self -protection was intensified. And 
just as the former individual employments of man are now cen- 
tralized in the mine, the smelter, the steel mill, the factory and 
the railroad, so the one-time feminine industries such as spinning, 
weaving, knitting, garment making, and the preserving of food 
stuffs, have also been transferred from the home to the factory 
to meet the increasing demands of commerce and trade 

* Reprinted from Safety for May, 1919. 

45 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

In recent years, and especially during the period of the World 
War, there has been a still greater influx of women into the indus- 
trial world. This has been due, in part, to the abnormal expansion 
of industries producing aircraft, munitions and supplies of war; 
in less degree, to the necessity of replacing male workers who 
have been drawn into military service. According to an estimate 
in ''Labor Laws in War Time," there are today in the United 
States approximately 11,000,000 women workers in gainful occu- 
pations. Many of these women and girls are working in what 
were formerly considered purely masculine employments. They 
include agricultural workers, car cleaners, carpenters, chauffeurs 
and garage managers, core makers, conductors and guards, ticket 
sellers and ticket choppers on surface cars, elevated and subway 
lines, machinists, outdoor painters, porters, roundhouse workers, 
watchmen, welders, wireless operators, and laborers in such 
heavy work as shoveling coal, filling trenches, and loading 
cars. 

Although the war doubtless brought home to industrial mana- 
gers the fact that there is a place for the woman worker in prac- 
tically every industry in the world, the actual replacement of 
male by female labor in the United States was far less than is 
generally supposed. According to a statement made by Miss Mary 
Van Kleek, Director of the Woman in Industry Service of the 
United States Department of Labor, in one plant in the war in- 
dustries, 65 per cent of the women workers had come from other 
factories, 25 per cent from domestic service and restaurants, and 
5 per cent from laundries ; and only 5 per cent had not been 
employed previously. Again, a report published by a large asso- 
ciation of employers points out that in less than twenty-five years 
the employment of women in manufacturing processes has in- 
creased more rapidly than that of men, and adds, "The expansion 
of their activities at this time may be regarded not as a radical 
innovation, but rather as an acceleration of a normal develop- 
ment." 

The employment of large numbers of women in the metal trades 
is regarded as entirely practicable by the National Industrial Con- 



SUITABLE WORK GARMENTS FOR WOMEN 

ference Board in a recent report on war-time employment of 
women in the metal trades. The report summarizes information 
received from 131 establishments employing 335,015 men and 
49,823 women, the investigation demonstrating that no extensive 
substitution of women for men had taken place in the metal 
trades. In this connection, the following statement recently made 
by the superintendent of one of the leading hardware companies 
in the country is of great interest : 

*'We have employed women in our institution for over fifteen 
years. Originally they came to us to work in the so-called 'boys' 
departments. The first machines on which they were employed 
were bolt cutters and they immediately made an unusual record. 
We found an increase of fully fifty per cent. ... It was only a 
short time until we found superintendents who had objected 
greatly to their being put in in the first place, were introducing 
them to the drill presses, milling machines and trimming presses. 
This developed until during the last ten years practically all work 
of this kind in our institution has been performed by women, only 
enough young men being kept on machines to produce the number 
of foremen and superintendents necessary for their operation, 
because we have not been able to develop women for the super- 
vising jobs, mainly on account of the legislation which has been 
put in against them. 

"After years of experiment we know the old idea that woman 
is physically restricted in her ability to perform certain types of 
work is entirely a fallacy. She is restricted only by the state 
and society.* She is hampered more by public opinion than any- 
thing else, and given equal opportunity in schools, trades and 
home training she will, in a few generations, demonstrate absolute 
equality." 

A New York manufacturer of automobiles planned during the 
war to place women in every department of his plant, from the 
drafting room to the assembly shop. According to statistics cover- 
ing 117 plants, compiled by the Bureau of Women in Industry 
of the New York State Industrial Commission, the relative pro- 

* Referring, presumably, to the work and experience of this plant. 

47 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

portion of replacement in Western New York, Central New York 
and New York City and vicinity increased after the armistice, 
in the case of Central New York and of the vicinity of New 
York City, lo per cent ; while in Western New York, where heavy 
work was most necessary during the war, replacement decreased 
20 per cent. The Bureau of Women in Industry believes, judg- 
ing from statements of employers interviewed in its investigation 
of the replacement of men by women workers, that, wages and 
general satisfaction remaining equal, women will continue in work 
formerly performed by men. This prophesy is borne out by two 
facts : "First, that of all plants employing women in men^s places, 
over one-half are going to retain every woman so employed; 
second, that 82 per cent are going to retain all or part of the 
women so employed. Furthermore, out of 13,000 or more women 
in 117 plants, only 2,000 have lost their new jobs through their 
own shortcomings." 

These "shortcomings" were principally observed in connection 
with the inability of women workers to lift heavy weights more 
or less continuously. A great many men, however, are unable to 
perform indefinitely the type of work on which women have 
broken down. Wherever hoisting and conveying apparatus has 
been installed to meet the physical limitations of women unaccus- 
tomed to heavy work, the resulting efficiency and increase in pro- 
duction have been so marked that the advantages of such employ- 
ment have applied to male workers as well. 

The principle should be established that all workers, irrespective 
of sex, are entitled to protection in their employments. A differ- 
ence in the degree of disability resulting from certain operations 
does not afford a convincing distinction between what has long 
been loosely termed "man's" work and "woman's" work. In some 
occupations, a strong, muscular woman can work with greater 
safety than an undersized or anaemic man ; on the other hand, it 
is a fact recognized by industrial physicians and expert investi- 
gators that women are more susceptible than men to the toxic 
effect of lead. The lead industries are especially dangerous for 
women because of the effect of lead poisoning upon the repro- 

48 



SUITABLE WORK GARMENTS FOR WOMEN 

ductive organs. An adequate exhaust system should control 
harmful dusts and fumes at their source, thus protecting both 
men and women engaged in operations where these dusts and 
fumes are created. In addition to suitable exhaust systems and 
hoisting and conveying equipment for handling heavy materials, 
standard safeguards must be provided for transmission and power- 
driven apparatus, machines, fly wheels, electrical equipment and, 
in fact, all moving machinery and localities which may be termed 
"danger zones." 

Standard mechanical provisions for the safety and health of 
both women and men have been formulated and emphasized by 
industrial commissions, labor departments, insurance companies, 
safety engineers and special investigators throughout the country, 
but in the field of personal protection, greater latitude has been 
allowed the individual worker. This applies especially to the 
wearing of sensible work garments. When women perform their 
work in the shop instead of in the home, they must be willing to 
exchange their kitchen and sewing aprons for garments mor^ 
nearly approaching those worn by their brothers. Sensible mem- 
bers of the sex realize that the ordinary feminine apparel is not 
even suitable for street and office wear; but in the shop, particu- 
larly, low-cut, flimsy shirtwaists, narrow skirts, thin stockings 
and high-heeled, pointed shoes constitute very serious hazards. 
There is nothing unwomanly in the wearing of "overalls" where 
they are suited to the work in hand. Nevertheless, in the matter 
of wearing sensible clothing many managers have experienced 
considerable difficulty with their women employees. 

In Section III, or "Working Conditions," of the "Standards 
Governing Employment of Women in Industry," formulated by 
the Woman in Industry Service, United States Department of 
Labor, the recommendation for "uniforms" is stated briefly, as 
follows : 

"Uniforms. — Uniforms with caps and comfortable shoes are 
desirable for health and safety in occupations for which machines 
are used or in which the processes are dusty." 

These standards, of course, are not mandatory, but have been 

49 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

recommended for general adoption by industries employing 
women. 

The Safety Standards of the Industrial Board, Pennsylvania 
Department of Labor and Industry, are more specific, reading as 
follows : 

Shop Clothing for Women 

The word "shall" where used is to be understood as mandatory 
and "should" as advisory. 
Section i. Uniforms 

From the standpoint of safety, efficiency, and appearance 
women workers in shops should wear uniforms, the style to be 
determined by the nature of the work performed, and so designed 
and worn as not to constitute a hazard. 
Section 2. Caps 

All women working in shops around machinery presenting un- 
protected hazards shall wear caps. These caps shall be of such 
fabric and design, and worn in such manner, as to eliminate the 
possibility of the wearer's hair being caught by moving parts of 
machinery. 
Section j. Shoes 

In the interest of safety, health, and efficiency, women workers 
should wear shoes of comfortable size with medium or low heels. 
Section 4. Approval 

Before shop uniforms are officially adopted by employees, they 
shall be submitted to the Industrial Board with a description of 
the work to be performed by the wearer. 

Regulations similar to these have been, and are being, formu- 
lated by the Industrial Boards and Labor Departments of other 
States. 

Head Covering 

While, in general, protection for women workers should be 
posited on the same conditions as those affecting men, there are 

50 



SUITABLE PFORK GARMENTS FOR WOMEN 

some exceptions which should be considered from a purely femi- 
nine viewpoint, or, rather, with due regard for age-long traditions 
relating to women. This reservation especially applies to head 
covering. No matter how absurd or startling the manner of 
dressing the hair may appear to masculine eyes, among civilized 
as well as savage peoples, a woman's hair has been considered 
her "crowning glory." The average shop-worker, therefore, is 
generally found to be averse to "hiding her head under a bushel," 
or more literally, appearing "a perfect fright" in the "mob" cap 
selected by many employers as an inexpensive and satisfactory 
solution of this particular phase of the problem of accident pre- 
vention. 

Suitable head covering is a desirable adjunct to uniforms for 
both men and women in industry, but, in the case of women, it 
is generally absolutely essential to their safety. Not only is it 
always possible for unconfined strands of hair- to become en- 
tangled in the moving parts of machinery near which a woman 
operator may be stationed ; but, even when standard safeguards 
have been provided — notably, in the case of transmission appa- 
ratus — a certain amount of static electricty may be present, which 
in combination with the carelessly arranged hair of a woman 
operator may result in her injury even when she believes herself, 
and to observers would seem, to be at a safe distance from mov- 
ing parts. Again, there may be dusts or fumes in the atmosphere 
of the working place which have a deleterious effect upon the 
hair and scalp; or the abundant hair of a woman worker may 
be exposed to flame, resulting in serious burns on her head and 
face. In general, therefore, head covering should be considered 
an indispensable part of the woman worker's uniform, with which 
it should harmonize in color and texture. Some women and girls 
will prefer a light cap of the "mob" variety ; others will consider 
closely fitting headgear, resembling the soldier's "overseas" cap, 
less irksome and more becoming; still others, especially outdoor 
workers and those exposed to flying bits of materials and the 
glare of the sun and artificial illuminants, will decide in favor of 
a cap with a vizor. In the choice of headgear, the character of 

51 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

the work to be performed and the prevailing good sense of the 
operators should prove the determining factors. 

Eye Protection 

The conservation of vision is a matter of the highest importance 
to all workers, regardless of sex. If women engage in occupa- 
tions where they are exposed to eye hazards similar to those 
experienced by male workers, they are entitled to similar protec- 
tion. The problems of eye protection, however, are highly tech- 
nical, and protective measures should be instituted in accordance 
with principles established by experts in this field. Especially is 
this true in the case of exposure to high temperatures, as in weld- 
ing operations, where the average worker is unaware of the in- 
sidious effects of invisible infra-red and ultra-violet light rays 
upon the delicate inner tissues of the eye and is careless about 
using the proper safeguards even where they are provided by the 
management. In grinding and polishing operations, it should be 
remembered that the dust and chips which may be thrown into 
the air are as destructive in their effect upon the eyes as upon 
the material which is being ground or polished. 

"The Federal Safety Standards for Head and Eye Protection," * 
as formulated by Federal safety engineers, afford the best sug- 
gestions and specifications so far assembled for eye protection in 
a wide range of industrial operations. They should be consulted 
in determining the best types of goggles or masks for the use of 
women workers as well as men. In some operations, where the 
eye is not in danger of being struck by chips or bits of material 
entering at the side, a light type of goggle without side shields 
and furnished with an elastic headband, is preferred by women 
workers as being more comfortable in the wearing and less ugly 
in appearance. The provision of suitable eye protectors, how- 
ever, should be accompanied by definite instruction in the im- 
portance of their use and their adjustment for comfort, followed 
by regular inspection and disciplinary measures if women em- 

* Safety for January, 1919. 

52 




Courtesy U. S. Woman in Industry Service 



Girl Operating a Planer in a Large Steel Plant Which Employed 
Many Women Workers During the War 




;. V\ Oman m Industry Service 

The Uniforms of These Press Workers Permit Freedom of Move- 
ment AND the ViSORED CaPS PROVIDE PROTECTION FOR ThEIR EyES 



SUITABLE WORK GARMENTS FOR WOMEN 

ployees neglect or refuse to wear them while engaged in hazard- 
ous operations. 

Protection for the Ears 

The ears are admirably protected by Nature in the case of the 
woman worker, if she wears her hair drawn over these useful 
appendages. A woman is, ordinarily, less exposed than a man 
to heavy concussions of sound, such as follow the use of high 
explosives in mining, quarrying and construction work. She is 
frequently subjected, however, to the nerve-racking noises and 
vibrations of machinery in a large shop, and she may be occasion- 
ally exposed to excesssive cold, or to dangerous dusts which may 
settle in the outer channel of the ear. Where these annoyances 
are serious enough to affect health and working efficiency, suitable 
ear pads should be worn, or the head covering should be designed 
so as to protect the ears as well. In deaHng with irritating dusts, 
however, one is forced again to the conclusion that an adequate 
exhaust system is the only solution of the dust problem. All local 
protective measures affecting the body are merely palliative. 

Protection for the Nose, Mouth and Throat 

What has just been written regarding the protection of the ears 
against irritating and dangerous dusts applies equally well to 
measures of protection for the nose, mouth and throat. Respira- 
tors and face masks of varying degrees of efficiency are on the 
market for the use of workers exposed to steam, dusts, fumes and 
gases, and simple "home-made" respirators, i. e., strips of muslin, 
holding in place layers of absorbent cotton covered with a thin 
piece of cheese cloth, are frequently recommended as cheap and 
practical devices for protecting workers in certain dusty opera- 
tions. The best of respirators, however, if worn for any length 
of time, prove irksome, unwholesome and unsatisfactory, unless 
the work requires the use of oxygen breathing-apparatus for defi- 
nite periods. The problem of protection for the respiratory or- 
gans, of which the nose and mouth constitute the outer defences, 

S3 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

in atmospheres inimical to health, is not solved excepting by the 
installation of a mechanical exhaust system designed in accord- 
ance with standard specifications. 

Where protection against excessive heat is desired, a mask of 
heat-resisting material, shielding the entire face and fitted with 
suitable lenses in the eye apertures, may be worn. 

The Uniform Proper 

In speaking of the working woman's uniform, in whatever pur- 
suit the wearer may be employed, one has in mind a garment 
covering the trunk and limbs. In some occupations where me- 
chanical hazards are not present, the uniform of the female em- 
ployee may consist merely of a "bib" apron, or one furnished 
with sleeves and entirely covering her waist and skirt. When 
operating machinery, or when engaged in any work necessitating 
considerable agility and freedom of movement, the woman worker 
requires a one-piece garment combining overalls and jumper, fit- 
ting well about the neck, wrists (if sleeves are worn) and ankles. 
The buttonholes should be well made and the buttons strong and 
securely fastened. There should be no loose ends or flaps to 
catch in machinery or trip up the wearer, and there should be 
only as many pockets as are required for the sake of convenience. 
The material of which the uniform is made should be selected 
with regard to the season of the year and the character of the 
work to be performed. It should be heavy enough to withstand 
the wear and tear of the working environment, but not so heavy 
as to prove cumbersome and confining. The color of the work 
garment is also usually determined by the nature of the employ- 
ment. In some large plants, specializing in food products — for 
example, cereal preparations — a white or light colored uniform 
may be worn, as the work is not dirty. The psychological effect 
of wearing a neat, clean uniform in handling food stuffs is of 
great importance. Khaki and dark blue, as in the case of men^s 
worksuits, are good colors for the uniforms of women operating 
machines or employed in yards, as they will stand frequent wash- 
ing without changing color or becoming shabby. 

54 




Ci;li.l_; i . S. Woman in Industry Service 

Uniformed Workers in the Packing Department of a Cereal Factory 

These uniforms, light in color, should be frequently laundered. 




Serviceable Garments for Work in the Railroad Yard 



SUITABLE WORK GARMENTS FOR WOMEN 

Sometimes, in foundry work, when handling rough materials, 
or when exposed to acids and caustics, it may be necessary to 
protect the work uniform with a special apron of asbestos, leather 
or rubber. 

The Arms and Hands 

If sleeves are not desired for the protection of the forearms, 
they should never be rolled up, but should be cut to elbow length. 
If the sleeves are worn long, the opening at the side of the wrist 
should be short and, when fastened, leave no projecting flaps or 
loose ends. Additional protection for the forearms and wrists, 
where they are exposed to unusual mechanical hazards, acids or 
excessive heat, or, as in the case of bench workers, simply to 
continual friction against the edge of the bench, may be furnished 
by gauntlets and gloves of leather, rubber, asbestos, and other 
proper materials. Rubber gloves should always be worn in the 
handling of acids, and special rubber gloves, meeting insulation 
requirements, where there is exposure to high-tension electrical 
apparatus ; woolen mittens or gloves should be worn when work- 
ing out of doors in cold weather; and gloves of heavy canvas or 
leather, or simply "hand leathers," when handling rough or sharp- 
edged materials, or when working near projections likely to 
scratch and bruise the hands. Gloves should never be worn, how- 
ever, where there is any danger of getting the hands caught and 
crushed, as in the operation of rolls, lathes, presses and other 
moving machinery. 

The Legs and Feet 

Usually, the bloomer, securely fastened where it meets the shoe, 
provides sufficient protection for the leg; but it is sometimes 
necessary to wear additional safeguards against heat, dampness, 
cold, acids and other special hazards. In the case of the scrub- 
woman, the knees should be protected by pads, or a cushion 
should be carried about and used when kneeling on damp, hard 
surfaces. Women who are exposed to acids and caustics, who 
work in foundries, on farms, on street cars, and in railroad and 

55 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

lumber yards may require leggings of asbestos, canvas or leather, 
or spiral cloth puttees similar to those worn by soldiers in the 
trenches. 

Much has been written and said on the subject of proper foot- 
wear, especially for women. In the opinion of a majority of 
women, however, a "proper" shoe is one balanced on a peg in 
the middle, and pointed at the toe. Derangement of internal 
organs, nervous affections, atrophy of the muscles at the back of 
the leg, and many other physical ills are due to badly balanced 
feet. 

As the high French, or "peg," heel sways under the wearer, 
and is very easily caught in cracks or small projections on the 
floor, it is frequently the cause of sprained ankles. In any record 
of accidents it will be found that the rate of injuries to the feet 
is comparatively high. Many men suffer injuries as a result of 
the practice of wearing out old shoes while at work, and an even 
greater number of accidents to women may be expected under 
this classification until, by experience, compulsion or education, 
women are ready to adopt sensible footwear. 

Work shoes for women should have low, military heels and 
stout soles, be of a good grade of leather, impervious to damp- 
ness, and black or tan in color. The toes should be strongly 
"boxed," to afford protection in the event that heavy articles are 
dropped upon them. Ordinarily, a laced shoe is more comfort- 
able, but in some occupations a buttoned shoe is safer, as it can 
be more quickly removed when an accident occurs, as, for ex- 
ample, when hot liquids or acids are splashed upon the feet. 
Cotton or woolen stockings, graded according to the season of 
the year and the degree of exposure to dampness and cold, should 
be worn with the work shoes. Preferably, they should match the 
shoes in color. 

During the winter of 1917 and 1918 when labor conditions 
made it necessary for the Union Switch and Signal Company to 
employ a large number of women and girls in its aircraft depart- 
ment at Swissvale, Pennsylvania, it was found that these em- 
ployees were wearing shoes with extremely high heels and very 

56 




('(.)nrtes\' ICastman Kodak Company 

Unsafe and Safe Types of Shoes for Women 




Courtesy Lazarus Mensch Co. (Walk-Over Shoe Stores) 

A Shoe Store Installed in an Industrial Plant for the Purpose of 
Providing Employees with Sensible Footwear at Minimum Cost 



SUITABLE WORK GARMENTS FOR WOMEN 

narrow toes. Believing that this type of footwear was not only- 
unsafe but interfered with the efficient performance of work, the 
company entered into an arrangement with a leading firm of shoe 
dealers in Pittsburgh, who make a specialty of corrective shoes, 
to open a store in one of the buildings of the aircraft department 
for the fitting and sale of shoes to workers. The only shoes sold 
in this department were "sensible" shoes, approved by the Red 
Cross and the Government's factory inspectors. Four models 
were carried, with medium and broad toe lasts and with heels 
from seven-eighths of an inch to one and one-half inches in 
height. 

At first it was found rather difficult to convert the girls to the 
wearing of common sense shoes, but their prejudices in favor of 
"style" were gradually overcome, especially as a result of edu- 
cational talks given by representatives of the shoe company on 
such subjects as "How to Walk," "How to Stand in Front of the 
Machine," and the "Proper Exercise of the Feet." These educa- 
tional talks were illustrated by stereopticon views showing the 
evil results of wearing high heels, narrow toes, short shoes, short 
hose, and incorrectly fitted footwear. The works manager and 
other officials all along the line cooperated with the shoe depart- 
ment in persuading the women workers to be fitted with the 
sensible and hygienic footwear so conveniently provided for 
them. 

Some months after the opening of this shoe department, the 
Union Switch and Signal Company made a very careful analysis 
of the results and felt they were conservative in stating that the 
efficiency of the women employees was increased from 30 to 
35 per cent. At that time about five hundred girls were wear- 
ing the sensible footwear furnished by the factory shoe de- 
partment. So well pleased were the company officials with the 
results attained that the department has added to its stock four 
styles of shoes for male employees. 

The shoes carried for both men and women workers are made 
of heavy material, specially treated to withstand the harmful 
effects of caustics and oils used in the plant. On account of the 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

many small chips thrown off by the machines, "12 iron" (a sole- 
cutter's measure, meaning a trifle over one-eighth of an inch in 
thickness), selected soles are used. Footwear is sold to employees 
at reduced prices and the privilege of having the cost of the shoes 
furnished by the factory shoe department charged against their 
semi-monthly wages, is granted to them. 

The Selection and Provision of Suitable Clothing 

In view of the returns in safety and general morale, where the 
women employees of a plant are uniformly clad in neat and sen- 
sible work garments, it is a sound business policy on the part of 
the management to furnish these garments at cost. When a suit- 
able costume is to be selected for women workers, it is advisable 
to secure the recommendations and suggestions of the women 
themselves through a properly organized committee. An illus- 
tration of the wisdom of this policy is afforded by the method 
followed in the selection of a uniform for the women munitions 
workers at the Frankford Arsenal. One of the important aims 
was to secure shop clothes for women workers in munitions 
plants which would be equally satisfactory for machine work 
and work with inflammable powders. A second specification of 
equal importance was to provide a uniform which the women 
and girls would wear with enthusiasm. The original design for 
the uniform was made by a committee of girl workers who also 
selected the style of garment to be worn. The following outline 
of the safety features of this uniform will be found of interest. 

The uniform is made of khaki. There are no openings in 
which powder or other dust may lodge. The pocket on the front 
is closed at the top but affords a place on which the insignium 
may be worn. The large hip pocket has a long flap which but- 
tons down tightly and allows the worker to carry her purse and 
handkerchief in a secure place. There are no loose ends to the 
costume. The belt of the waist buttons over the bloomers, re- 
ducing the possibility of inflammable dust lodging in the folds of 
the cloth, and the collar of the blouse can be buttoned tightly 
around the neck or can be worn open in warm weather. Each 

58 




Courtesy U. S. \\ oman in Industry Service 

Uniform and Cap Worn by Women 

Employees of the Frankford 

Arsenal 

Attractiveness of appearance and safety re- 
quirements are admirably combined in these 
garments. 




Courtesy Westinghouse Electric and 
Manufacturing Company 

A Comfortable and Safe Uni- 
form FOR A Lathe Operator 

Note the sleeve worn at elbow length, 
permitting freedom of movement and 
lessening the accident hazard. 



SUITABLE WORK GARMENTS FOR WOMEN 

cuff of the bloomers has two buttons, allowing for adjustment 
around the ankle. In order to prevent over-heating of the scalp, 
the cap is of material lighter in weight than the blouse and 
bloomers, but closely woven to keep out the dust. It follows the 
style of the official aviation cap and is very attractive in appear- 
ance. The cap band is easily adjustable to any head. 

The Care of Work Garments 

In order that the uniforms worn by women workers may be 
kept clean and wholesome they should be laundered at regular 
intervals, the frequency depending upon the nature of the work 
performed. The garments worn by women engaged in mechani- 
cal operations or in roundhouse duties should never be permitted 
to become so impregnated with oil and other greasy substances 
as to constitute a fire hazard, or be a menace to health. Workers 
in the lead industries should be supplied with complete changes 
of overalls, caps and gloves and these garments should be laun- 
dered at least once a week. This service should be performed by 
the management free of charge, as the work garments should, 
under no circumstances, be worn or taken away from the plant. 
In many other industries, the provision of laundry service will 
be found a wise investment, returning large dividends in the in- 
creased health and contentment of workers. 

Change Rooms and Washing Facilities 

For the purpose of changing the shop for the street clothes, 
washing facilities, lockers and dressing-rooms meeting standard 
sanitary requirements are absolutely essential. Women are less 
gregarious in their instincts than men and require more privacy 
in their bathing and dressing. This idiosyncracy of the sex 
should receive serious consideration when installing sanitary 
equipment for women workers. In some work of a rather 
dirty character, as in the making of cores, it is absolutely neces- 
sary for a self-respecting woman to bathe and "tidy-up" before 
leaving for her home. Suitably screened shower baths, there- 

59 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

fore, should be provided, the stream of water playing in a hori- 
zontal direction in order to avoid wetting the hair. 

The washing facilities should include lavatory basins of im- 
pervious material, preferably of porcelain or glazed ware, fitted 
with waste pipes and with spigots supplying hot and cold water, 
so spaced as to provide accommodations for the incomng work- 
ers without undue crowding or delay. According to the modern 
interpretation of "sanitary" fixtures for the washroom, the stop- 
pers in the basins should be removed and all washing should be 
done in running water. 

Every woman worker is entitled to a clean and airy place in 
which to keep her clothing. The standards for lockers will vary, 
according to the nature of the work performed, from a simple 
rail for carrying individual clothes hangers to a large, well- 
lighted and mechanically ventilated dressing-room, furnished with 
single or double lockers, suitable, respectively, for the clothing of 
workers exposed to heat and humidity or to harmful dusts and 
fumes. 

A trustworthy woman capable of enforcing regulations and 
keeping these places sanitary should always be placed in charge 
of women's wash and change rooms. 



60 



IV. 
SAFE HEADS AND GOOD EYES 

By Walter G. King, Vice-President, Julius King Optical Company 

THE United States Bureau of Standards, in conjunction with 
the safety engineers of the Federal industrial establishments, 
undertook the task of establishing tentative standards for head 
and eye protection. This work entailed an immense amount of 
painstaking study and has been of value in eliminating inferior 
and unsafe guards. While these specifications are subject to 
criticism it must be borne in mind that these standards are ten- 
tative and corrections and additions will result following the 
introduction of new and improved guards. 

The Importance of Good Eyesight 

"Safe Heads and Good Eyes" is possibly the most important 
subject that has been suggested for consideration. The head is 
the seat of our five senses and of them all the sense of sight is 
the most wonderful. Of all types of injury that are compara- 
tively frequent, those to the eye deserve the most serious atten- 
tion, because of the fact that the line between a minor injury 
and one that may lead to blindness is very closely drawn. Many 
workmen escape the loss of their eyesight by the narrowest 
margin. 

It is more important to see than to hear, taste or smell. A 
blind man is at greater disadvantage than a deaf man. A man 
with but one eye is unable to judge distance correctly and is, 
therefore, not only liable to get hurt himself but may be the 
cause of injury to his fellow workmen. 

If our eyesight is destroyed we become helpless, groping crea- 
tures, bereft forever of the sight of faces of friends and loved 

6i 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

ones; shut off from all that has made life sweet and attractive 
in the past; dependent upon others who may not have patience 
or interest in us; able no longer to enjoy the things that made 
up our day of sunshine and perhaps spoiling the day for those 
who must care for us in our misery. It is, therefore, of vital 
importance that we take good care of our eyes, keep them in 
good condition and safeguard them in every way. We do not 
believe that men usually refuse to wear goggles in defiance of 
the dangers they face in hazardous occupations, but because 
they do not appreciate what a marvelous and beautiful struc- 
ture comprises the eye. 

You must all be familiar with the comparison of the eye to 
a photographic camera and no doubt most of you use a camera 
to some extent. Imagine, then, a camera that focuses itself ; 
that automatically controls the amount of light admitted to the 
sensitive film, in this case the retina, and, last but not least, that 
takes a constantly moving picture in colors during more than two- 
thirds of each day. Although the human eyes do this, 99 
per cent, of the people give less thought and care to their eyes 
than they would to a dollar "Brownie" that may be replaced 
at any department store. 

Accidents to the Eyes in' Industrial Operations 

We know that over two million accidents occur in our fac- 
tories and workshops every year and about 10 per cent, or 200,- 
000 of them are accidents to the eyes. It is estimated that 
there are about 15,000 persons totally blind as a result of 
industrial accidents and it is safe to say that more than 
half this number are needlessly blind. Such a loss is appalling. 
It should be our earnest endeavor to make an intelligent investi- 
gation as to the causes of eye accidents and be able to suggest 
the proper safeguards. The dangers must be known to be 
avoided and no safeguard should be installed unless it is efficient. 
The prevention of a serious accident to his eyes is the greatest 
service that can be rendered an industrial worker for by such 
service are eliminated not only pain, suffering, loss of time and 

62 



SAFE HEADS AND GOOD EYES 

expense, but permanent disability, unhappiness and decreased 
earning power. 

While it may be said that all accidents are more or less unex- 
pected, those to the eye are especially difficult to prevent if safety 
goggles are not provided. Quick as the eye is, it cannot always 
save a man from injury, because usually a piece of metal, flying 
as swiftly as a bullet, gives no warning. The chances for slight 
or severe eye injuries in iron and steel workers are multitudinous 
and occur in all branches of the work whether light or heavy. 

Cooperation Necessary to Eliminate Eye Accidents 

Even when the inspector is thoroughly familiar with eye haz- 
ards and can make intelligent suggestions for the particular type 
of protection to eliminate eye accidents, all his efforts will be in 
vain unless he can secure the cooperation and backing of the 
management, the foreman and the workmen. We have, then, 
three distinct propositions : 

First, the management must be convinced that the elimination 
of eye accidents is an economical as well as a humanitarian 
proposition. The compensation award for the loss of one eye 
will pay for a thousand pairs of goggles. Nearly all of our large 
industrial plants are aware of the large percentage of eye acci- 
dents and do not hesitate to provide approved safeguards against 
all face and eye hazards. 

Second, the foreman must learn how simple the installation 
of goggles and face masks can be ; that there is a particular type 
for each individual eye hazard and that these are now so per- 
fected that they can be worn without discomfort. Let him realize 
that the whole eye-accident problem is in his hands and with 
his sympathy and cooperation there will be little trouble in in- 
ducing all workmen to wear safety goggles. Convince him that 
he and his fellow workmen are liable to accident and possible 
injury unless right thinking is done, and that no amount of money 
can compensate for the loss of an eye. 

Third, the workman with eyes protected can do more and better 
work. An injury to the eyes unfits a workman to be a bread- 

63 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

winner and a serious eye accident will bring misery, pain and 
suffering not only to himself but to the home which is depend- 
ing upon him for support. He must be made to realize that 
goggles will protect him and safeguard his eyes, and when prop- 
erly adjusted will be comfortable to wear. 

The Selection and Care of Protective Goggles 

The installation of goggles is not a "hammer and tongs" propo- 
sition. It is hardly fair to hand a man a pair of goggles, telling 
him to "wear them or lose your job." Explain to him what they 
are for ; what they will accomplish and how they do it and, if 
possible, cite particular cases where goggles have saved eyes. 

Select goggles that fit the face, a nose piece that fits the nose 
and temples that will not hurt the ears. By all means issue in- 
dividual goggles for each man. There is danger of infection from 
interchange of goggles, and to avoid this insist on the rule, 
"Don't wear the other man's goggles." The lenses of safety 
goggles should be kept clean and the entire goggle washed fre- 
quently in soap and water and dipped into a sterilizing solution. 
This is an important part of shop inspection. When goggles 
are damaged they should be turned in and exchanged for a 
new pair. 

There is also great danger from meddlesome attempts by work- 
men to remove foreign bodies from the eyes of their fellows, 
with the first object they can find in any way suited to the task. 
How soiled this is appears to make little difference. Workmen 
should be forbidden to render such aid, no matter how well in- 
tentioned it may be. 

Methods of Inducing Workers to Wear the Goggles 
Provided for Their Protection 

The question is often asked "How can workmen be induced 
to wear safety goggles?" This question, which is a very im- 
portant one, can best be answered by referring to the methods 
and experience of a few large industrial plants where safety 

64 




Courtesy Julius King Optical Company 

Plaster Casts Used in Constructing Goggles to Fit Various Facial 

Contours 




Courtesy Julius King Optical Company 

Foreman Adjusting Worker's Goggles for Comfort and Maximum 

Protection 



SAFE HEADS AND GOOD EYES 

goggles have been installed and in which the safety inspector 
has successfully solved this problem : 

A Large Railroad 

"Following a period of systematic education regarding the 
importance of preventing eye injuries, the wearing of goggles 
in hazardous occupations was made compulsory. A workman 
found without goggles is laid off four days without pay for the 
first offense and discharged on his second offense." 

A Manufacturing Plant 

"Has safety committees in each department and frequently 
the mianagement holds evening meetings at which a lunch or 
dinner puts every committee member at ease. Later, when 
policies are discussed, each man is ready to join the discussion." 

A Sheet and Tube Mill 

"When a serious eye injury has been prevented by the wearing 
of safety goggles or face mask, the workman whose eyesight 
has been saved is given the day to demonstrate to his fellow 
workmen his escape from serious injury." 

A Large Steel Foundry 

"Every official of the company who visits the foundry is re- 
quested to wear safety goggles and all teamsters driving through 
the gates are furnished with goggles which they must wear while 
in the company yards." 

A Street Railway 

"Foreman refused to wear goggles, claiming they tired his 
eyes and made him dizzy. An examination of his eyes showed 
a marked error of refraction which prescription lenses fully 
corrected. This foreman is never without his goggles and is a 

65 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

booster. When the foreman put on safety goggles all the work- 
men followed suit." 

A Navy Yard 

"A photograph of workman, together with the pair of safety- 
goggles which prevented injury to his eyes, is mounted on the 
bulletin board with this notice. *If you know this man, ask 
him how it happened.' " 

A Steel Plant 

"It is necessary to keep men interested in eye protection and 
looking out for their own and others' safety. The chipping 
yard foreman makes sure every morning that each man is pro- 
vided with a perfect pair of goggles and urged to wear them." 

A Malleable Castings Company 

"A new five dollar bill was fastened on the bulletin board with 
this notice: 'Any workman who sees Mr. W.— (the superin- 
tendent) without safety goggles can claim this hill.' " 

United States Railroad Administration, Pennsylvania 
Railroad, Eastern Lines 

"We found that eye injuries were causing numerous accidents 
and as they were generally serious and involved long periods of 
disability, we adopted the use of goggles as a preventive in the 
early part of 1913. 

"Prior to that time 35 per cent, of the serious accidents on 
the Pennsylvania Railroad, Eastern Lines, were eye injuries 
due to flying rivet heads, spawls, scale, burrs from chisel heads 
and, to a limited extent, to dust from emery wheels. 

"It is impressive to know that we have furnished almost 57,000 
pairs of goggles to our shop employees on the Eastern Lines 
alone, and as the total number of these employees was less than 
52,000 in 19 1 7, it will be seen that we have placed enough gog- 
gles to have given every employee one pair, and 10 per cent, of 
them a second pair. 

66 




Eye Protectors for Machinists. Lighter Goggles Are Used in 
Machine Operations Where the Hazard from Flying Particles Is 

Not So Great 





Light Weight Goggles for Women Workers Not Exposed to 
Flying Particles Approaching from the Side 



SAFE HEADS AND GOOD EYES 

"We have furnished 786 pairs of prescription goggles and con- 
sider that the extra money expended is justified by the removal 
of the hazard presented by ordinary glasses and the substitu- 
ion of actual protection. 

"There are many eye accidents which are due to conditions 
which would not ordinarily indicate that the use of goggles would 
have been considered necessary, and they show that it is not 
always the man who is directly engaged in cutting off rivets 
who is hit by the flying rivet head. The only way to decrease 
accidents of this kind is to provide and use rivet screens, or 
better, have every man who has business in the plant wear goggles. 
The value of example in this connection is readily recognized, 
and if foremen and higher officials would wear goggles their 
men would be more careful in using them. 

The natural question from the operating department is, 'Does 
it pay?' The answer must be positively affirmative, in view of 
our experience. While it is impossible to tell how many eye in- 
juries have been prevented on account of the fact that the gog- 
gles are not always broken by the flying objects which might 
have caused them and also on account of irregularities in reports 
covering cases where the goggles have been broken and the eye 
saved, we have definite information coming from only a few of 
our many shops that at least 31 eyes have been saved by the use 
of goggles. As established by the Workmen's Compensation 
Laws of the State of Pennsylvania, each eye represents a saving 
of $1,250; so that the total monetary saving amounts to $38,750. 
This alone would pay for more than two-thirds of the goggles 
furnished, and the moral certainty that those reported are only 
a few of many, makes it plain that the total saving not only 
covers the cost of the goggles but probably the cost of those 
accidents which have happened, in spite of all the measures 
which have been adopted." 

Chief Causes of Eye Accidents 

The principal causes of injury to the eyes in industrial opera- 
tions are as follows : 

67 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

Chipping with Pneumatic Tools 

Chips of various sizes frequently fly with great violence into 
the faces of operators. 

Machine Operations 

In turning brass at high speeds, steel shafting and axles and in 
machining cast iron and high speed steel, pieces of metal are 
thrown off from the work. Infection may also occur from 
brass and copper and from oil and cutting compounds. 

Grinding Operations 

Cuts on the cornea may result from flying dust and chips, as 
well as the bursting of wheels due to accidental blows, fouling 
the work, improper mounting, overspeed or excessive pressure 
against the wheel. 

Sandblasting 

Particles of sand and castings may be blown into the eyes. 

Cutting Rivets 

There is always danger to the eyes of operators and others 
in the groups of men engaged in riveting or cutting rivet heads. 

Welding 

In oxy-acetylene cutting and welding and in any other work 
in molten metal, the hazard of flying sparks and drops of hot 
metal is always present. 

Pouring Molten Metal 

This involves the hazard of serious eye burns from spatters 
or explosions of hot metal. 

Wire Drawing 

In this operation great tension is placed on the wire and when 
accidents occur due to the breaking or slipping of the wire, it 

68 





Two Types of Rivet Head Arresters Designed to Prevent the Violent 

Flying Out of Rivet Heads with Resulting Injuries to Men Cutting 

Rivets or to Bystanders 



SAFE HEADS AND GOOD EYES 

may lash back with violence, striking the face and eyes of the 
operator. 

Handling Acids 

The eyes are in danger of serious acid burns from the spilling 
or spattering of acids. 

Mushroomed Tools 

The use of tools with iron burrs projecting from hammering 
surfaces may result in damage to the eyesight. It is highly im- 
portant that frequent inspection of workmen's tools be made by 
competent authority. 

Intense Heat and Light 

The condition known as "cataract" of the eyes occurs some- 
times in glass blowers, blacksmiths and foundrymen, as a result 
of prolonged over-stimulation of the eyes by great heat and light. 
Cataract may also be caused by a blow or cut of the eyeball, par- 
ticularly if the lens is struck. 

Stonebreaking and Bricklaying 

Stonebreakers and masons, quarrymen and bricklayers should 
protect their own eyes and should be particularly careful to dress 
their work against a wall in order that passers-by may not be 
injured. 

Blasting in Mining and Quarrying 

There are always a large number of accidental injuries in the 
use of explosives in mining, quarrying and similar work which 
are particularly dangerous to the eyesight. Powder grains may 
become embedded in the eyeballs and eyeHds. 

Bursting of Oil and Water Gauges and Glass Containers 

Many injuries to the eyes are caused by flying pieces of glass, 
scalding steam, hot water or other liquids when boiler and loco- 

69 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

motive oil and water gauges, bottles and siphons used in bottling, 
or other glass containers accidentally burst. 

Exposure to Irritating Gases, Fumes and Caustics 

The fumes rising from hot fluids, molten metals, lime or cor- 
rosive acids or alkalies entering the eyes may cause burns in- 
volving the eyelids; the deeper burns affecting the eye generally 
result from explosions. 

Bricklaying, Plastering and Masonry 

In these occupations burns caused by unslaked lime (calcium 
oxide) sometimes result in destruction of the cornea, and because 
of chemical combination with substances in the cornea may pro- 
duce permanent opacities. 

Metal Buffing and Polishing 

In brightening surfaces which they must closely watch, work- 
ers frequently suffer from eyestrain. 

In general, all dusts are irritating to the conjunctiva and sclera. 
Their effect is usually mechanical and may give rise to slight 
abrasions, which become infected through germs carried into 
the eye with unclean dust particles. Chemical dusts may have 
many sorts of effects, even destroying the structure of the eye 
and eyelids. Chronic conjunctivitis follows persistent irritation 
by dust. 

Protection for the Eyes Against Injurious Light Rays 

I have spoken of the eye hazards from chips and dust but 
another hazard not so easily guarded against is the danger from 
intense and injurious light. Just as the film in a camera is 
ruined by over-exposure to light, the eye may be rendered sight- 
less by destruction of the sensitive tissues. You all have heard 
or read of people who have been blinded by a lightning flash. 
Happily most of these cases recover, but for a long time after 

70 




Courtesy Julius King Optical Company 

Fibre Hand Shield for Protection Against Injurious Light Rays 
IN Arc Welding and Cutting, Especially Adapted for the Use of 

Inspectors 




Courtesy S. F. Hayward and Company 

Protective Helmets for Sandblasters 



SAFE HEADS AND GOOD EYES 

such an experience the eyes are sensitive to strong Hght. In 
those occupations where the lightning flash is harnessed (as in 
electric welding) and made to help us in our work, we must 
take every precaution to keep it from doing irreparable injury 
to the sight. The constant but oft repeated shock to the delicate 
membranes and tissues must be prevented, as there is danger of 
the muscles becoming so enervated that they cannot recuperate. 
Welders must see to work properly and the problem is to give 
them all the vision possible, commensurate with safety to the 
eyes. Men have always made for themselves some sort of pro- 
tection from these terrible rays. The arc light is highly actinic 
and besides the danger to vision there is the mighty uncom- 
fortable burn on the face and neck from the ultra-violet rays. 
To be well protected the welder's head should be shielded from 
the direct rays from his arc and he should at the same time be 
able to watch the procedure of the operation. AccompHsh this, 
without at the same time interfering with the free use of either 
hand, and safety is assured. An acetylene flame is not so actinic 
nor does it burn the skin. Consequently a lighter mask, or even 
goggles may be satisfactorily worn, but the lenses should be 
adapted to this operation and protectors should effectually ex- 
clude the injurious light from striking in at the side. The need 
for special goggles with tinted lenses varies from those used by 
girls who inspect lighted incandescent lamps to those worn by 
platinum melters and astronomers. 

Good Lighting Will Eliminate Eye Strain and 
Prevent Accidents 

Fatigue from eyestrain is an important consideration in reflex 
disturbances, such as headache, giddiness and nausea. Defec- 
tive eyesight from flickering light, as well as from very strong or 
very dim light. Every inspector should always bear in mind the 
fact that plenty of light properly placed means increased produc- 
tion and also a better quality of work. A good average rule 
is to put as much light as possible on the work and have no light 
shining into the eyes. The greatest number of accidents occur 

71 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

during the dark months of diminished light or during the dark 
work hours. Even if an adequate lighting system is installed it 
will not remain adequate without care. If light reflectors are 
not frequently cleaned the reflecting power is impaired to a very 
large extent. 

It is essential that the elements of the structure and anatomy 
of the eye be well understood. Without this knowledge a person 
cannot fully realize why defective eyesight in industrial workers 
should be corrected, or understand the causes of fatigue from 
eyestrain. Weak sight and defective vision predispose to injury 
and many workmen do not see well enough to escape frequent 
and often serious injury. The charts shown here will serve to 
illustrate these points. 

The Structure of the Eye and the Causes of 
Change of Vision 

We are all more or less familiar with the operation of the 
camera. At the back is the sensitive film on which the picture 
is received and at the front is the lens which gathers the light- 
rays and focuses them on the film. An iris diaphragm controls 
the volume of light transmitted and the lens when moved back 
and forth as required focuses the picture sharp and clear on the 
film. The inside of the camera box is blackened to absorb stray 
rays of light to prevent any reflection that might blur the picture. 

In the eye the same principles are involved. The retina, a won- 
derfully sensitive membrane or tissue, replaces the film. The 
interior of the eye is lined with a light-absorbing tissue, the 
choroid; but, in place of a lens focussed by an adjusting screw 
as in the camera, the lens of the eye is elastic and focusses itself. 
The volume of light passing into the eye is controlled by a cir- 
cular fringe of fibres that automatically open and close as may 
be necessary to permit proper vision of the work in hand. This 
curtain or iris may be blue or gray or brown in color and is re- 
ferred to when we speak of the color of a person's eyes. 

In the art of seeing it is the brain that actually interprets the 
picture to be observed. The retina receives a sensation which 

72 



SAFE HEADS AND GOOD EYES 

the optic nerve transmits to the brain, just as the nerves in our 
fingers transmit sensations to the brain that we interpret as 
the sensation of "touch." 

The elasticity of the structure of the lens of the eye which 
enables it to change its focus, is most interesting. The lens rests 
in a little capsule surrounded at its edge by a ring-like muscle 
which flexes and changes the surface curve. While looking at 
distant objects the eye is at rest (assuming of course, it is a 
normal eye), but when looking at near objects the lens is under 
tension. A definite muscular effort holds the lens at a greater 
convexity to bring the object viewed into clear focus upon the 
retina. In the course of years this elasticity is lessened, the lens 
becomes less readily adaptable to observation of objects at vary- 
ing distances and it becomes necessary to supplement its action 
by glasses. This is the "old sight" commonly referred to. Glass- 
es are also worn to overcome many other defects caused by 
changes in the eye structure of either permanent or temporary 
nature. 

Dr. Shoudy in the second lecture in this series told us of the 
wonderful human machine, how the skull so fully protects the 
brain and the ribs the vital organs in the chest. Nature also 
provides protection for the eye by the overhanging brow, the 
nose and eyelashes, as well as the bony cavity forming the orbit 
of the eye. The eye is held in perfect balance by six voluntary 
muscles that turn the eye in, out, up or down, and roll the eye- 
ball. If there is too much pulling of this internal muscle the 
eye turns in, resulting in a confused image on the retina. Eye- 
strain then results from the exertion made by the brain to over- 
come, or compensate for, the lack of work that should have 
been done by the external muscle. 

Goggles Should Be Selected to Meet Individual Needs 
AND Peculiarities of Facial Contour 

Women have made good in manufacturing plants as operators 
on lathes, punch presses, grinding and other machines. For these 

73 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

operators a light, inconspicuous eye protector must be adopted 
that will protect without detracting from the appearance of the 
wearer. Goggles of the type shown in the accompanying illus- 
tration, will be worn by women workers, because of their neat 
appearance and evident utility. 

The contour of faces varies considerably. Therefore, plaster 
casts have been taken from the faces of twelve workmen in order 
to enable us to determine how goggles should be constructed to 
conform to the various types of faces. Two of these casts are 
shown in the illustration. Note in one the heavy features, broad 
nose and deep set eyes ; and, by way of contrast, the other cast 
with sharp features, thin nose and prominent eyes. It can readily 
be seen that one type of goggle would not answer for both faces. 
If goggles are selected to fit the face and are properly adjusted 
they are comfortable, not unsightly and fully protect the eyes, 
but when no attempt is made to adjust them the orbit is unpro- 
tected and the goggles are uncomfortable to the wearer. 

Application Forms Should Bear Questions Covering 
Eyesight 

Some industrial concerns consider the eyes of the utmost 
importance ; others utterly neglect them, even where the safety 
of many depends on their condition. A Canadian railroad has 
an application blank which must be filled out by the workman 
looking for a job. On it there are over twenty-five questions to 
be answered. They want to know about an applicant's tempera- 
ture, pulse, and about his heart, lungs and liver ; but no reference 
is made to eyesight. This blank is interesting since it shows 
how little thought was given to eyesight. Many of us have de- 
fective sight in one or both eyes without realizing it and usually 
in a form that can be corrected, thus giving normal vision. 

Protective Helmets Used by American Soldiers 

Helmets of various types were used by men in our American 
Army during the war. They were heavy and uncomfortable to 

74 



SAFE HEADS AND GOOD EYES 

wear, especially in hot weather, but the wearing of them meant 
protection. Visors of various styles were designed for the pro- 
tection of the eyes from bursting shell and shrapnel. Particles 
of flying steel could not get through their narrow horizontal 
slots and there was very little interference with vision. 

Object Lessons in Eye Protection 

The bulletin board is most important in affording object les- 
sons and warning a workman of danger if he fails to wear gog- 
gles at his work. He may not want to wear goggles and is 
willing to take a chance on getting hurt without them, but when 
he thinks of the wife and babies who are dependent on him he 
realizes that he cannot afford to be reckless and will ask for 
safety goggles. This is particularly true where he has been well 
instructed regarding their proper use. 

Many interesting cases of protection afforded by goggles might 
be cited. A workman lost the sight of his right eye some years 
ago from a steel chip. While at work a few weeks ago, with 
his eyes protected with safety goggles, the rivet set which he 
was using flew up striking him in his left eye with such force that 
the frame of his goggles was bent and the lens broken ; but his eye 
was saved. Had he not been wearing goggles he would probably 
be totally blind. Such a workman becomes a booster for safety 
goggles and will urge his fellow workmen to protect their eyes 
and profit by his experience, when goggles are available in a 
plant. The foreman or other responsible person should mani- 
fest interest in the individual workman by carefully adjusting 
goggles, while at the same time explaining the eye hazard in 
connection with the work and urging the workman to wear his 
goggles and protect his eyes at all times. 

A workman was grinding a tool on an emery wheel when the 
light suspended over the stone grew dim and went out. He 
looked up to discover the cause and found a heavy deposit of 
emery and steel particles on the electric light globe which on 
examination was found to be scarred. Sharp particles of emery 

75 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

produce scars on the cornea of the eye and many of these scars 
will materially interfere with vision. 

Molten babbitt metal may be spilled and spatter, or explode 
when it strikes moisture and splash into a workman's face. It is 
quite evident that one eye, or both, would be lost if a suitable 
mask is not provided and worn during the entire operation. 

Carbon arc welding presents a grave hazard to the eyes, as 
well as to the face, if adequate protection is not provided. I 
wished to know from experience just how much the ultra-violet 
light thrown off in this process would affect my own eyes, so, a 
short time ago, I watched such work for perhaps three minutes 
at a distance of 50 feet. There was little sleep for me that night. 
I experienced a burning, stinging sensation in my eyes and was 
conscious of an unpleasant sensation for a day or two afterward. 
The temperature in carbon arc welding is approximately 6500 
degrees Fahrenheit. Ultra-violet light at this temperature will 
burn the unprotected skin and, unless the eyes are protected with 
scientifically correct glasses, may permanently injure them also. 

An oculist in Chicago made a collection of 58 eyes in less than 
seven months. Think of all the pain and suffering represented 
by these accidents, undoubtedly all of which might have been 
prevented. The labels on these show that 20 chippers, 10 emery 
grinders, 8 blacksmiths, 8 lathe hands and 4 welders were the 
victims and each working at a task against the dangers of which 
suitable eye protection is available. 

Eye Accidents in a Large Navy Yard 

The' superintendent of safety of one of the largest navy yards 
illustrates the ratio of lost time from eye injuries as compared 
to the total lost time accidents, tabulated by months, in the year 
1 91 8, with interesting figures. 

During January, 1918, 128 lost-time injuries occurred, of 
which 15 were eye accidents. In December, 191 8, 73 lost- 
time accidents were recorded, of which 6 represented eye 
injuries. The total lost-time eye injuries during the year at 

7e 



SAFE HEADS AND GOOD EYES 

this yard were but y}i per cent, of all accidents recorded, 
where a lost-time accident is an injury causing the employee 
to be absent from work a day or more. 

Of the 46 different occupations employing an average of 
16,400 workmen during the year, 20 trades recorded eye ac- 
cidents and 26 had no eye injuries. Chippers and caulkers 
had 41 eye cases, or 30 per cent, of the total number of acci- 
dents for this occupation ; machinists had 20 eye cases, or 12 
per cent, of the total accidents for this occupation; and 
electricians had 12 eye cases, or 13 per cent, of their total 
number. 

As the Federal Compensation Act allows compensation be- 
ginning with the fourth day after the accident, and then only a 
maximum of $2.22 per day, it is estimated that the compensa- 
tion paid for eye injuries did not exceed $1,200. The cost to 
the workman of the first three days together with the difference 
between what he would have earned and what he received as 
compensation, is estimated at about $3,200. 

Questions and Answers 

Q. Regardless of the exposure to eye hazards, what is the 
value of corrective lenses in goggles to men in industry? As a 
protection from other accidents — of men falling, for instance, 
because they do not see well? A. Defective vision is undoubt- 
edly the cause of many accidents, most of which could be pre- 
vented if corrective lenses were fitted to safety goggles. 

Q. What is the best glass to cut out the ultra-violet rays? A. 
I think this question is better answered by referring you to the 
United States Bureau of Standards at Washington, who are 
endeavoring to establish standards which will include and specify 
the particular glass, its color and all other facts in detail. Much 
so-called "optical" glass is supposed to be perfectly flat, but by 
rubbing a face plate and emery over the surface its unevenness 
may be revealed. The use of such glass will cause eyestrain and 
no glass that is irregular or defective should be used in safety 
goggles. 

77 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

Comment by Gentleman in the Audience 

The protection of the eye against ultra-violet rays has given us* 
a good deal of concern and we have tried to find out what was 
the best glass to use. In that work we turned to the United 
States Bureau of Standards and have decided upon the glass 
which is found by its tests to be suitable for the purpose. There 
are many kinds of glass on the market and workmen will say 
they like a particular one. Unless such glass will stand up 
against tests similar to those instituted at Washington, a man may 
be experiencing a hazard without knowing it. There are proba- 
bly very few plants that are equipped to make the tests outlined 
in the standards which are proposed. The Bureau of Standards 
will test any glass submitted to them. 

Q. Is it possible to buy a goggle that will not take up mois- 
ture? Some years ago we recommended the use of goggles to 
foundry workmen, especially to those engaged in casting metal. 
Investigation of foundries in a half dozen different States re- 
vealed the same objection to the use of goggles while casting 
metal. The goggles persisted in "fogging" after the air was 
charged with smoke. A. There is a type of goggles made for 
this particular hazard. Ordinary castile soap, rubbed over the 
glass and wiped off gently will prevent lenses from fogging 
for three or four hours. 

Q. Is the effect of camouflage on the eye injurious. A. Not at 
all. Yellows and greens are restful to the eye, but bright red 
is irritating. 

Q. Is there any evidence that the eye strain arising during the 
making and testing of electric light bulbs has been lessened by 
the wearing of glasses? A. Yes, indeed. 

*The Pennsylvania Railway System. 



7^ 



GUARDING MACHINERY 

By Harry A. Schultz, Chief Safety Engineer, Industrial Relations 
Division, Emergency Fleet Corporation 

THE general physical layout and condition of an industrial 
plant or shop which provides fully for the protection of the 
workmen against the ordinary hazards incident to the operation 
of machinery, is a fundamental and most important factor in 
successful accident prevention work. This is true not only be- 
cause it insures greater safety to the individual in the perform- 
ance of his duties but it has an excellent psychological effect upon 
the working forces as a whole and acts as a stimulant for greater 
interest and cooperation in the accomplishment of very desirable 
results. 

The cooperation of the employees is of paramount importance 
in a successful campaign against accidents. It is a phase of the 
work which, of necessity, must be highly developed through the 
inauguration of strenuous educational measures and not only 
must the workman be made to fully understand and realize his 
most important part in contributing to the safety of himself and 
his fellow workers, but the employer also must show a willing- 
ness and a tendency to maintain a high physical standard in the 
plant and to correct the existing hazards or else a difficult prob- 
lem presents itself in the development of the proper cooperative 
spirit among the workmen. The employer must, in other words, 
indicate and prove his desire to do his part before he can expect 
the cooperation desired from the men. 

Safety Engineering An Important Construction Feature 

In the construction of a new plant or an additional shop, or in 
the installation of machinery and equipment, safety should rank 

79 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

in equal, or even greater, importance with other construction 
features. It is well, in fact, highly desirable, that a complete set 
of safety specifications be prepared before work is started, so 
that the proper safety precautions and appliances necessary to 
protect employees from the dangers incident to working condi- 
tions and machinery operation, may be provided at the time con- 
struction work is planned or machinery is installed. 

The advantages of providing, so far as possible, the necessary 
safety features during the process of construction work or 
machinery installation are obvious, both from the standpoint of 
cost and the convenience of having these features included and 
made a part of the original contract or regular construction work, 
rather than to experience the inconvenience of adding them 
after construction or installation work is completed. An en- 
deavor should be made to have all safety features properly in- 
stalled with the completion of the plant. 

Safety specifications of this character should be based upon 
practical and recognized safety standards and should be drawn 
up in a form so that they may be included and used as a whole 
or in part for any contract for construction work, or the pur- 
chase or installation of machinery or equipment. A set of safety 
specifications should be attached to or embodied in general speci- 
fications when originally submitted to contractors or manufac- 
turers for bids. In this manner the contractor or the manufac- 
turer will be fully advised as to the safety requirements and these 
features will then be included and properly taken care of during 
the process of construction. 

The safety engineer should play a very important role during 
the planning of a new plant or shop. He should establish very 
close relationship with the construction engineer and follow closely 
and approve for safety all drawings for the plant, shop and equip- 
ment. The general physical layout, the arrangement of entrances, 
routes and passageways to accommodate employees entering, 
leaving or moving about the plant should receive careful study, 
to eliminate, so far as possible, the hazards incident to crossing 
railroad tracks and other dangerous areas. Special care and at- 

80 




Courtesy United States Steel Corporation 

Escape Runway for Operators of Hot Metal Cranes 

This structural steel runway along the entire open hearth building provides escape for 
crane operators in case of hot metal accidents on the pouring floor. 



GUARDING MACHINERY 

tention should be given to the general arrangement of the shop 
buildings, the placement of machinery, aisles, transmission ap- 
paratus, conveying machinery and means for reaching all over- 
head equipment, as v^ell as the safeguarding of the machinery. 
Where the size of the job or the character of the equipment 
involved warrants it has been found very desirable to go over 
the safety specifications in detail with the contractor before the 
work is started and during the process of designing, and to in- 
spect the equipment in the contractor's shop before shipment is 
made. By so doing, a mutual understanding between the con- 
tractor and purchaser may be reached regarding the safety fea- 
tures and unnecessary expense incident to additions in the field 
may be obviated. 

It is highly important that considerable discretion be used by 
inspectors and committeemen in making recommendations for 
the safeguarding of machinery. Only sound recommendations 
should be made, after a careful survey to cover an actual exist- 
ing hazard, if proper action would be inspired. The quality of 
recommendations submitted and not their quantity, should govern 
action. A large number of poor recommendations, or even one, 
without apparent justification, may cause considerable dissatis- 
faction on the part of the management or the foreman and lead 
to much confusion and delay in having the program properly 
and effectively carried out. 

Qualifications of a Good Safety Engineer 

The safety engineer must be essentially enthusiastic and ag- 
gressive in his work, especially in dealing with some foremen 
and even managers; but he must be equally diplomatic. When 
he makes a recommendation, he should be able to back it up 
with sound argument and, if there is opposition, be able to pre- 
sent facts based on past experience, with the exercise of per- 
suasive, rather than coercive, methods. The safety engineer 
must at all times take a broad viewpoint, and study a situation 
from every angle, taking into consideration the position of the 
operating man who is responsible for the production of the par- 

8i 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

ticular department or machine. In other words, all recommenda- 
tions for safeguarding should be equally satisfactory from an 
operating as well as a safety standpoint. 

Fundamental Principles to Be Observed in Making a 
Safety Survey 

There are three fundamental principles which should be ob- 
served in making a safety survey : First, the present conditions ; 
second, what may happen ; third, how to safeguard the condition 
in the most logical manner. 

Design of Machine Guards 

When it has been fully determined what is necessary to guard 
an existing hazard, careful attention should be given to the actual 
design of the guards. Primarily, they should comply with the 
laws of the State or community and embody all the features 
necessary to make them effective for adequate protection against 
all existing hazards, whether apparent or not. It is important that 
an endeavor be made to design guards which will in no way 
interfere with or impede operation, but rather increase the ef- 
ficiency and production of the machines through freer and more 
skilful operation. Neatness should be a dominating factor and, 
where feasible, the guards should be made to look as much like 
a part of the machine as possible. A clumsy, ill-appearing guard, 
or fence, consumes valuable operating space and gives the ap- 
pearance of a greater hazard than really exists. The proper 
weight of material and substantial construction is most import- 
ant from a maintenance standpoint 'and all guards should be 
readily detachable so that the guarded parts may be accessible 
for repairs or adjustment. A guard not properly designed is 
an added expense, both from the standpoint of production and 
maintenance; and such guards will, sooner or later, cause dis- 
satisfaction and be subjected to abuse with the result that, after 
a short period, they will have served their usefulness and be 
relegated to the scrap heap. In planning guards for machines, 

82 



Il .... 




;^^C^^^S^£ 




P ■ * ::l ■" ^ ij~^" ' 


f; , ^^^ 





Courtesy United States Steel Corporation 

Model Installation of Nail Die Grinders 




Courtesy United States Steel Corporation 

Telescope Guard for Boring Bit 



GUARDING MACHINERY 

all parts so exposed that a person may come in contact with 
them and be injured, must be carefully considered. Merc eleva- 
tion above the floor level or other location remote from the usual 
condition should not be considered as adequate protection, if 
conditions are such that a person might, by the use of a ladder, 
by slipping, falling, reaching, or in some other manner be brought 
in contact with the dangerous parts. All gearing, chain drives 
and the shafting directly connected with a machine should be 
completely enclosed with substantial covers and no exceptions 
should be made of gears or exposures of this character. In many 
instances where a danger exists, it is highly desirable to effec- 
tively guard the point of operation where stock is formed, shaped 
or undergoes other mechancal change. Couplings, keys, bolts and 
other similar equipment in moving parts of machinery should 
be covered or countersunk in such a way as to eliminate danger of 
accident by contact with them, and all unused portions of key- 
ways should be filled up to present a smooth surface. 

Construction of Machine Guards 

The weight and type of material to be used for the construction 
of machine guards will depend entirely upon the size and char- 
acter of the part to be guarded and whether or not it is desirable 
to have the part guarded in a manner such that it can be observed 
by the operator. In all cases, however, the material of the guard 
should be of sufficient weight, properly reinforced, where neces- 
sary, to make it substantial and durable. Too often material is 
used which is entirely too light and without proper reinforce- 
ment. This generally leads to short life and high maintenance 
cost or, under severe service conditions, the guard becomes bat- 
tered and warped to such an extent that it presents an unsightly 
appearance and cannot be readily replaced after removal for re- 
pairs. This means additional expense for replacement or, worse, 
the guard is left off altogether and the workman is again exposed 
to the hazard. If maintenance and renewal cost would be re- 
duced to a minimum, guards must be designed properly and 

83 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

substantially when originally installed and made as accessible as 
possible to obviate removal oftener than is absolutely necessary. 
A well-designed guard should last as long as the machine and 
should not require frequent renewal. The installation of machine 
guards should always come under the close supervision of the 
safety engineer or be placed in charge of a competent man who 
fully understands the guarding of machinery. 

Power Transmission and Control 

The power application at the machine whether directly con- 
nected to electric motor or driven by belt and pulley, should be 
made effectively safe for the operator and those working in the 
vicinity. The character of the drive must necessarily determine 
the design of the guard which should embody all the features in- 
cident to the best safety practice necessary to eliminate the hazard 
of coming in contact with the moving parts and applied in such 
a manner that it will not consume valuable operating space. 

It is very important that all machines be equipped with a start- 
ing and stopping device controlled by a locking arrangement which 
will substantially lock a machine in the off position during periods 
of adjustment or repairs. This can usually be very readily ac- 
complished by a lock-belt shifter for belt-driven machines and in 
the case of direct electrical drive by a safety enclosed locking 
switch placed conveniently near or upon the machine. So far as 
it is practicable all belt shifters of the same general type in a 
shop should move in the same direction to stop machines ; that is, 
they should all move either to the right or to the left. Where 
directly connected electrical drives are used the power cables 
within the building, and leading to the machines, should be run 
in conduits with junction fittings for all connections and no parts 
from which shock could occur by contact, should be left exposed. 
Proper guarding of normally dead parts of electrical equipment 
should be required. 

In the planninng of power transmission apparatus, which in- 
cludes all line shafting, jack shafting, belts, pulleys, clutches and 

84 






^ 




GUARDING MACHINERY 

electrical distribution equipment for prime movers, up to, but 
not including, the countershaft and belt for driving a specified 
machine, every attention should be given to the safety of those 
called upon to work about this equipment. The same conditions 
should govern here as govern machine installations and mere 
elevation above the working level, or other location remote from 
the usual working position, should not be considered as sufficient 
protection. All conditions under which serious injury may result 
from persons being brought into contact with exposed parts 
should be guarded, or equipment embodying the proper safety 
features installed. Considerable attention should be given the 
provision of convenient and safe means for working all over- 
head apparatus so that the workmen may perform their duties with 
as little exposure to accident as possible. 

Electrical Distribution Equipment 

Electrical distribution equipment is such an extensive and in- 
volved matter and is covered §o completely in the National Elec- 
trical Safety Code, Bulletin No. 54 of the United States Bureau 
of Standards and the Fire Underwriters Standards that it would 
hardly seem advisable to attempt to go into detail on this subject. 
As stated before, however, it is highly desirable that all inside 
electrical wiring for power circuits be placed in metal conduit, 
with metal junction and outlet boxes and without exposed wires 
at the terminals. Power controlling switches with handle ex- 
tending to the outside of the box for operating the switch should 
be of an enclosed looking type. Push-button control is desirable 
when it can be used to advantage. 

Layout and Installation of Power Apparatus 

The physical layout of power plants and the installation of 
prime movers, electric generating apparatus and accessories should 
have the closest supervision of the safety engineer in order that 
all hazards incident to generation of power and operation of 
equipment of this character may be minimized. Such apparatus 

85 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

should be constructed to conform to the latest revised State and 
other approved codes for the design and strength of materials 
and be in accordance with the best safety practice, including 
special safety features. A complete set of safety specifications 
should be drawn up for the purchase and installation of equip- 
ment, and these should be closely followed. 

Steam, gas and electric mains should be laid out with great 
care, to avoid all dangers in themselves or from outside forces 
incident to their distribution from the generating station to the 
equipment. In steam-piping care should be taken to avoid the 
danger due to expansion and contraction. The expansion due to 
heating should preferably be taken care of by loops or bends or, 
if necessary, by expansion joints. The pipe system should be 
anchored at certain points in such a way that these points will 
be absolutely fixed and the expansion will be away from the point 
of anchorage toward the loop, bend or expansion joint. It is 
essential that the expansion of the pipe system does not throw 
any undue strain upon the connection at the engine or boilers. 

Safeguards for the Engine Room 

Engine cylinders and receivers should be properly equipped 
with relief valves, set to blow at a pressure well within the safe 
working pressure. These valves should have means for testing, 
to make sure that they are always in working order and their 
discharge openings should be so arranged that steam or water, 
issuing from them, will not injure attendants. It is highly de- 
sirable that receivers be equipped with a pressure gauge. A live 
steam connection should not be made to the receiver of an engine 
without a reducing valve set so that the pressure it permits will 
be well within the safe working pressure of the receiver and the 
low pressure cylinder. An automatic relief valve should be in- 
stalled on exhaust lines where these lines may be subject to 
obstruction or accidental closing, and on all condensing engines 
the exhaust line should be provided with a drain, so that the 
system may be quickly drained in the event that cooling water 
is accidentally drawn into the exhaust line from the condenser. 

86 



o 





GUARDING MACHINERY 

In addition to the governor for automatically controlling the 
speed of power-driven apparatus under varying loads, independ- 
ent, automatic emergency stops with speed-limiting devices should 
be installed so that the apparatus may be quickl> and automatic- 
ally stopped should the governor become defective or the engine, 
for any other reason, start to race. In the case of reciprocating 
engines which drive large departments these automatic stops are 
connected with the remote control system, with stop stations con- 
veniently located throughout the driven departments, so that in 
an emergency an engine may be quickly shut down from various 
points. Good practice requires such remote control systems to 
be periodically tested to insure certain operation. Their use in 
the daily shutting down of the engine is an excellent plan. 

Where gas and oil engines are used special attention should be 
given to the piping arrangement. The exhaust gases should be 
conducted to the outside air in such a manner that they will 
not pollute the atmosphere in the engine room or working places. 

Electric prime movers driving and located within departments 
should be installed at points remote from general operations, or 
enclosed in such a manner as to avoid accidental contact with 
live or moving parts. 

The principal hazard associated with the operation of prime 
movers is the danger of coming in contact with the moving parts, 
careless operation or accidents resulting from broken parts due 
to sudden over-burdening or to defects. All parts which might 
cause accidental injury by contact should be effectively guarded. 
This should include, for reciprocating engines, the fly-wheel, 
crank and connecting-rod, cross-head, governor balls and valve 
mechanism. If there is electrical generating apparatus in con- 
nection with the prime movers, special attention should be given 
to the guarding of this equipment to avoid accidental contact, as 
well as to the arrangement of the switchboard and the power 
cables entering or leaving the building. Sufficient space should 
be provided in all cases behind switchboards, and for overhead 
equipment or in basements so that operation, adjustments and 
repairs can be made conveniently and with as little exposure as 

87 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

possible to contact with live parts. On high-tension switchboards 
there should be at least three feet clear working space between the 
bus bars or equipment and the nearest obstruction. Suitable in- 
sulated floor space should be provided upon which attendants can 
stand when serving such equipment. 

Only careful, sober and reliable engineers should be placed in 
charge of power equipment and thorough inspection should be 
made daily of such equipment before starting. Engine stops and 
signals should be tested at regular intervals and when inspection 
of cylinders or other parts of reciprocating engines are made 
which require the engineer or inspector to place himself in a 
hazardous position, the cross-heads should be properly blocked 
and the throttle valves locked, to prevent the engine from turning 
over. When removing a cylinder head the drain and indicator 
cocks should always be opened to make sure that there is no 
pressure in the cylinder, and it is always well to pry the head 
loose from the cylinder before removing all the nuts from the 
stud bolts. Roof trusses should not be used for turning engines 
over unless they are designed for this purpose. 

Safeguarding Repairmen 

Close relationship should always be established between the 
man in charge of the power house or engine room and those mak- 
ing repairs to any equipment therein. Repairmen should never 
work on transmission apparatus, distribution lines or equipment 
without the full knowledge of the man in charge at the power 
house and some one should be made responsible for the safety of 
the men making the repairs. Before starting work the responsible 
party should fully inform the man in charge of the power house 
as to what is to be done and all valves, switches or other devices 
controlling the movement of machinery on the passage of current 
should be properly locked or appropriate signs, not easily dam- 
aged or removed, placed thereon to indicate that the equipment 
is not to be started until the man in charge of the repair work 
informs the man in charge of the power house personally that 
the work has been completed and no one is in a position to be 




Courtesy United States Steel Corporation 

Butterfly Valve with Counterweight and Trip Cords 




Courteb^ Liberty Mutual Insurance Company 

Stop Station with Mechanical Lever and Trip Cord Controlling 
Engine Stop Valve 



GUARDING MACHINERY 

injured. For the sake of absolute security in making repairs, it 
is very desirable that the controlling apparatus be locked and 
that the man in charge of the repair work hold the key until such 
time as repairs are completed. He should be the one to remove 
the lock personally and inform the men in charge of the power 
house that conditions are such that it is safe to start power over 
the lines. Men should never be required to work on transmission 
apparatus or on electric distribution lines or equipment while 
they are alive. While low voltage lines are not, as a rule, con- 
sidered dangerous, nevertheless, resistance to electric shock de- 
pends much upon the location of the apparatus and the nature of 
the contact made with it. The physical condition of the man 
in some measure affects the hazard and in many instances shock 
from very low voltages have proven fatal. 

Fire extinguishers should be supplied and kept filled and ready 
for use at all times in power houses and be stationed at various 
points where there are electrical installations. These extin- 
guishers should be filled with a non-conductive fluid which will 
admit of their use for electrical fires without danger from shock. 
This is a matter which should be strictly observed and water from 
hose connections, or extinguishers of the ordinary type filled 
with conductive fluids, should never be used. 

Remote Control Apparatus 

Special and remote control for shop machinery is a very desir- 
able feature, both from an operating and safety standpoint. 
Remote control apparatus may be described as a stopping ar- 
rangement for the control of power-driven machines at points 
other than the regular control at or near the machine. These 
devices may control the machine directly or they may control all 
of the machinery through the driving mechanism or power trans- 
mission apparatus. There are various types of safety stops em- 
ployed for remote control. They may be electrically operated 
stops, situated either at the machine or at the prime mover, to 
actuate the closing of valves or other controlling apparatus. 
Where individual machines or departments are electrically driven, 

89 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

a, simple means of opening the main switch on the power Une 
may be employed. There are mechanically operated devices to 
throw out clutches, either on the main transmission shafting at 
the machine, or to shift the belt from the driving pulley to the 
loose pulley. 

Stop stations should, in all cases, be conveniently located near 
the operators. This location should be clearly marked by signs 
or lights or both, and their operation be simple and plainly indi-. 
cated. They should be of uniform design and appearance and 
similarly indicated in all parts of the same plant. Workmen 
should be thoroughly acquainted with the location of the stop 
stations and educated by actual operation, in their proper use so 
that no time will be lost in an emergency. A scheme employed 
by some companies to thoroughly familiarize the men with remote 
control apparatus is to let the men shut down the machinery at 
quitting time each day by operating the safety stops. 

It is well to have stop stations so designed that it will be 
necessary for an authorized person to visit the particular station 
at which the machines or group of machines have been stopped 
to reset the device before such machinery can again be started. 
This is true, especially, in a large department where many 
machines are driven from a prime mover and there are many stop 
stations. Remote control devices which operate starting mech- 
anism, as well as safety stops, should be provided with some 
special means for locking to prevent unauthorized operation and 
for the protection of workmen engaged in making repairs. Wher- 
ever practicable electric safety stops should operate on a normally 
closed circuit, so that when the circuit is broken the stop cannot 
be reset and it will be necessary to make an investigation to de- 
termine why the circuit was broken, or if the safety stop is out 
of order, and to make the necessary repairs before the driving 
mechanism can again be started. 

Electro-Dynamic Braking 

Direct-current, electric motors driving single machines, groups 
of machines or departments, should be equipped with electro- 

90 




Courtesy united' StateylSteeiCoiyuiatiuu 

Safety Stop for Calender Machine 

If the operator's clothing or hand is caught in the heavy rolls, a slight pressure on the rope 

which the man in the illustration is grasping with his left hand, will disconnect the switch 

and instantly stop the machine. 



GUARDING MACHINERY 

dynamic braking in conjunction with the safety stops to reduce 
to a minimum the drift of the machinery, the tendency of the 
machine to continue to turn under its own momentum until it 
finally stops — after the switch has been pulled or the circuit 
otherwise broken. 

In power houses, especially where engines and turbines are in 
use, stop stations which will shut down all the power should be 
located at all exits and entrances, so that when a serious accident 
occurs to the generating equipment the man in charge of the 
power house or some other person in case he is injured, may con- 
trol and shut down the machinery from outside of the room and 
where he will not be exposed to injuries which might occur should 
it be necessary for him to approach the equipment for this pur- 
pose. Where steam valves in the main steam lines are not readily 
accessible they should be provided with a device which will per- 
mit easy operation from the floor. 

Where remote control apparatus is installed, it should be in- 
spected daily and kept in good working order, so that it may be 
depended upon in case of an emergency. 



91 



VI. 

ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY AND 
WORKING PLACES 

By James L. Gernon, First Deputy Commissioner, 
New York State Industrial Commission 

THE World War was responsible for much suffering and 
many heartaches, but it was also prolific in the lessons it 
taught. While many millions of casualties resulted we hope that 
the people of all countries have emerged from the conflict with the 
highest conception they have ever had regarding the value of 
human life and the efficiency of man-power. 

We know of the efforts put forth to provide for the comfort, 
protection and efficiency of our fighting forces at home and 
abroad. We have witnessed the results in applying physical 
standards in the selection of those who were chosen to meet the 
enemy in combat. How many examined in the draft were found 
physically defective or below the standard requirements for army 
service was a distinct shock to many of us. 

Fortunately, wars last for a short time when compared with 
the industrial life period of the average worker. While battle- 
fields were productive of a large number of casualties and the 
number killed and maimed in the war was high, we should real- 
ize that as industry exists at the present and because of the 
greater span of time a worker spends in industry, the casualties 
in industry are higher than they were in the war. Let us hope 
that we can see the wisdom of affording the same liberal training 
and protection for those engaged in our industries as we so gen- 
erously gave to our fighting forces. We all know that our boys 
could not have accomplished all they did to bring about so suc- 
cessful a victory, had it not been for the magnificent achievement 
of those working for their welfare, training and protection and 

92 



ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY 

the production of the necessary supplies and equipment. It is 
therefore self-evident that the greatness of our nation rests, first, 
on the health and morals of our people; and, second, on their 
education and productive efficiency in industry. 

Some Causes of Industrial Inefficiency 

We speak of efficiency. Remember that efficiency is the sci- 
ence of doing; not "doing" the worker so that he becomes a 
human derelict, but teaching him the science of doing work 
effectively, which also includes doing it safely. Thirty-eight per 
cent of our men between 21 and 31 years of age were rejected 
in the draft as physically unfit for war ; 60 per cent of this physi- 
cal unfitness was due to preventable causes. Of the group from 
31 to 45 years of age, 50 per cent were unfit; 75 per cent due to 
preventable causes. Of this impairment among rejected men 60 
per cent was due to ignorance or neglect and could have been 
prevented. We should keep in mind that these examinations were 
conducted under relaxed' standards which were necessarily less 
rigid than those used in the maintenance of a small or select 
army. 

It was President Wilson who said at the time we entered the 
war, "It is not an army we must shape and train for war, it is a 
nation." The physical condition of our people, as shown by the 
draft examinations, proves that it is a nation, not individals, that 
we now have to shape and train for industry in order that our 
people can efficiently follow their chosen vocations. Our fight- 
ing forces have made their record "over there." We now have 
our commercial and industrial achievements to maintain here. If 
we hope to compete successfully with other countries we must see 
that our people acquire and maintain the highest possible standard 
of efficiency, for on no other basis can we hope to succeed. 

Generally speaking, nothing is more inefficient than industry, 
and the poor arrangement of machinery and working places con- 
tributes very largely to this inefficiency. In most manufacturing 
processes the labor cost is the highest item of expense. It natu- 
rally follows, therefore, that it may provide the means through 

93 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

which the greatest losses can occur unless the industry is car- 
ried on efficiently. Industry today has reached a very high state 
of development as far as the introduction of automatic and semi- 
automatic machinery is concerned and the end is not yet. But 
with this growth we have not given as much attention to the 
proper development of men, women and children as we should. 
Many concerns have tried to work human beings with the same 
intensity that they have their power-driven machinery. Machines 
have failed and so have human beings. We are beginning to 
realize that the human body cannot be made to work as intensively 
as a power machine, or for long periods keep pace with them; 
nor can operators be timed with a split-second watch as you 
might a race-horse with which you were endeavoring to break 
a record. 

Enlightened directors of industry are fast realizing the neces- 
sity for providing proper working conditions and environment in 
their establishments to protect the health, provide for the safety 
and promote the highest efficiency of their workers. They re- 
gard it as good business and know it pays. The basic foundation 
of our industrial life is the health and security of our people. 
Before the enactment of compensation laws a human being was 
regarded as the cheapest of commodities. We should bear in 
mind also that a worker when once taught an operation repre- 
sents an economic asset to the industry. 

The Life Extension Institute estimates that 600,000 people die 
each year from preventable diseases. At least half of the 3,000,- 
000 or more sick-beds constantly filled are unnecessary. The 
financial loss from earnings cut off by preventable diseases and 
premature deaths amounts to $1,500,000,000 annually, while over 
15 years are lost to the average life through lack of application 
of knowledge which already exists but which has not been dis- 
seminated and applied. Industry is not responsible for all of 
this frightful toll. Regardless of the causes, the people have to 
bear the cost of this burden and the causes should be eliminated 
as far as possible. 

An analysis made by the Life Extension Institute of the causes 

94 




Courtesy Xew York State Industrial Conimissiun 

Exterior Closed Fireproof Stairway for Factory Building 



ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY 

for rejections by several local draft boards in Detroit, Brooklyn 
and New York of 8,875 "^^^ called in the draft and of whom 
7,611 were examined, shows that 29 per cent of all who were 
examined were rejected. Tuberculosis caused the lowest and de- 
fective vision the highest number of rejections. 

While talking with Mr. Emmons of the General Electric Com- 
pany regarding the inability of workers to see properly, he told 
me that one young man whose vision had been corrected by the 
use of glasses, discovered for the first time that he could see 
across the street. He did not know until that time that other 
people could see a distance equal to the width of any ordinary 
street. Imagine how great was his ability to protect himself in 
the average industry. 

As a cause of rejection defective teeth came second and under- 
weight third. Underweight naturally leads us to suppose that 
the person was undernourished. Such persons are nearly always 
inefficient in their work and liable to injury. Following these 
came hernia, fourth; heart troubles, fifth, and flat feet, sixth. 
An analysis of 74,280 men examined for the Navy showed that 
6,800, or 38.7 per cent of the total, were rejected as physically 
defective. Here, again, poor eyes head the list, followed by flat 
feet and defective teeth. When draft boards started to examine 
men they soon learned that they had to lower the standards of 
physical fitness. 

These studies show conclusively that the physical condition of 
our people is not what it should be. The condition of these men 
taken from our industrial life proves that something is wrong 
with the basic condition of our industries. If the health of our 
people is not up to the highest standard the country suffers. We 
need nothing more conclusive than the records of the draft boards 
generally to prove that many people in the ordinary walks of 
life are inefficient because of their physical condition. 

Proper Aisles and Exits 

The aisles of an establishment are not only the arteries through 
which the raw and finished products most flow, but are also the 

95 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

walks and highways over which all of the employees move or 
work in order to carry on the business of the plant. They should 
be designed and constructed to properly handle and convey the 
products of the industry and must, of necessity, be of ample ca- 
pacity to properly accommodate all of the employees in case of 
fire or panic and enable them to reach a place of safety outside 
the building in which they are employed. There are two types 
of aisles: Main and tributary. The main aisles should be pas- 
sageways leading directly to each means of exit and to all ele- 
vators used to convey stock or material from floor to floor. 
Aisles of any type should always be free from obstructions or 
projections. Tributary aisles are those leading toward an open- 
ing into main aisles. Main aisles should lead to at least two exits 
as remote as possible from each other. Such exits should be of 
a high standard and with the single purpose of providing escape 
for employees in the event of fire or panic. 

Wherever possible, stairway enclosures should be the fireproof 
or fire-resisting type, serving all floors of a building and leading 
to the street or ground level and fitted with self-closing fire-doors 
swinging outward so as not to obstruct the stair line or to inter- 
fere with those moving down stairways from upper floors. The 
purpose of the self-closing, swinging fire door is to insure that 
the door will be closed at all times, except when used to enter 
the stairway or floor. They also make the stairway as nearly 
smokeproof as possible and protect persons who may have to 
use the stairway when passing a floor on which a fire may occur. 
No door that can be termed an exit door, leading into or out of 
any factory or any room thereof, should be locked, bolted or 
fastened during working hours. 

The use of sliding doors leading to exit stairways should not 
be permitted. When used, they are generally held open by a 
fusible link. In some instances, the stairway would be filled 
with smoke and heat before the link would fuse, thereby making 
the exit useless. Where a sliding door is kept closed, a number 
of people running and crowding about the exit might jam the 
door against the wall and prevent its being opened. Even when 

96 



ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY 

this type of door is used and kept closed the stairway is not 
smokeproof since the door cannot be fitted close enough to the 
wall to keep smoke from passing by. 

When considering the question of exits and aisles and their 
arrangement, it is necessary to keep in mind the provisions of 
various State laws limiting the occupants of any factory build- 
ing, or portion thereof above the ground floor, to such number as 
might safely escape from such building by the means of exit 
provided. 

Efforts have been made to standarize the width of aisles in 
factories. It is almost impossible to do this properly for factories 
in general. Attempts made to base the width of aisles on the 
distance employees would have to travel to reach main aisles are 
not always practicable. It would be far better to consider the 
number of persons that are employed in a room and must use 
the aisles to reach the exits, always keeping in mind the nature 
of the work carried on, the kind of material handled and the 
processes used in the industry. Where material must be con- 
veyed through aisles to which machinery and work-benches are 
adjacent, thought should be given to the possibility of injuring 
workmen in these locations. The machinery and benches should 
be arranged to provide ample space for operating the machinery 
and handling the material in a safe manner. The width of aisles 
should be figured from the outermost projections on machines, 
tables or other obstructions and, when possible, machinery should 
be so arranged that no employee works with his back to an aisle. 
It is better to have him face the aisle so that he may see danger 
and avoid it. 

In some plants the width of aisles is distinctly indicated by 
stripes painted in white on the floors. This indicates that no 
material or stock should be placed in the aisle space and enables 
those conveying material by hand or motor trucks to keep within 
the aisles, thus protecting themselves and those working near the 
aisles. In some plants difficulty has been experienced with truck 
operators who run over the white boundary lines. To overcome 
this trouble cleats of 2 x 4 stock have been fastened to the floor 

97 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

indicating the aisles, with openings at the main or tributary aisles. 
In many plants, owing to the number of people employed and the 
amount of material handled the inside traffic regulation has be- 
come a real problem. 

Provisions for Safety in the Handling of Material 

Power-driven trucks and trailers should be provided with 
gongs or horns for use when turning corners or at other times 
when necessary, but the continual use of such signals should be 
discouraged. In many plants much material is handled on cranes 
which could be handled to better advantage on trucks or trailers. 
It is the custom in some plants to endeavor to lift a load with the 
crane when the hook is not directly over the load to be lifted. 
This is a bad practice and productive of many serious injuries. 
Proper aisle space permits men to step aside and from under 
loads being transported overhead by cranes. 

Care should be used in the handling, conveying and piling of 
finished or unfinished material. It should be well piled or stacked 
so that it will not topple over or fall from any cause. There 
should be adequate passageway between piles to permit material to 
be safely removed. 

In many factories material is stacked on small, slightly elevated 
platforms or boxes which can be transported by a lift truck which 
is run underneath the platform or boxes raising them by means of 
its handle, and conveying them to any other part of the establish- 
ment, where they are deposited by a reverse action of the handle. 
Where this practice is followed much time is saved and many 
accidents are prevented which occur during the loading and un- 
loading of material from the ordinary truck or container. In 
handling material 50 per cent of the accidents are due to material 
or tools falling on the hands or feet. The use of a lift truck has 
considerably reduced this percentage. 

Spacing of Machinery 

Proper consideration should be given to the spacing of machin- 
ery. In all instances there should be ample room to carry on the 



ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY 

processes in the machines and have them operate in a safe and 
efficient manner throughout their full range, with due regard for 
workmen and the apparatus in close proximity. If, for example, 
a planer bed operates within i8 inches of a wall or pier the passage 
should be guarded by a rail. Groups of machines may be segre- 
gated between proper aisle spaces. Good spacing in woodwork- 
ing establishments is rather an unusual condition because in most 
of them stock and machines are so arranged that employees 
usually jump over them instead of going around them. 

The Importance of Good Floors 

The day of poor floors is passing. Intelligent manufacturers 
realize that efficiency and safety are increased when floors are 
properly constructed and kept clean and free from waste mate- 
rial, properly removed and stored. Floors should be constructed 
of material best suited to the industry or process. Wooden floors 
are preferable to all others, provided they are suited to the work 
performed and will withstand the wear and tear of the process. 
They are less likely to become slippery and are warmer and 
quieter. 

Cement floors are increasing in new factory construction. A 
cement or asphalt floor might be termed a "dead floor" and is 
hard for an operator to stand upon continuously. It does not 
have as much "life" or warmth as a wooden floor and where 
employees are required to stand continuously upon a small area 
in performing their work, their efficiency and comfort will be 
greatly increased if a platform of wood or other resiHent mate- 
rial is provided under them. In many instances planks or boards 
with the ends and sides bevelled to prevent tripping are used by 
the operators to stand upon. The wood-block floor is coming into 
more general use and makes an excellent floor when care is used 
to put down dry blocks that will not shrink. 

The question is often asked, "What can we put on the floor of 
a woodworking shop when it is slippery?" Some materials will 
coil up when loose and form a tripping hazard, or slip about 
unless securely fastened down. One of the easiest and simplest 

99 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

of methods is to paint the floors around machines. If the paint 
itself does not prevent slipping a little sand sprinkled on the wet 
paint will make it more effective. In most instances painted floors 
will prevent slipping. 

Wet floors are found to exist generally in some plants, while 
in others only part of the processes responsible for wet floors. 
Wet cement floors in many instances furnish very treacherous 
footing and in some industries the material used tends to make 
cement floors very slippery. Oil-soaked, greasy, improperly 
waxed, icy or worn metallic floors are always dangerous. A 
fall may mean anything from, a sprained ankle or wrist, or 
broken bones, to serious internal injuries or death. In many 
instances wet floors are also cold and in numerous plants the 
workmen are subject to drafts. It is poor practice to permit 
this condition to exist, for the workers while trying to be com- 
fortable lose working time that represents a money loss to the 
nianagement. Uncomfortable conditions cause more loss than 
the cost to maintain adequate heat or other proper working con- 
ditions. Inclined runways are dangerous to work about in win- 
ter weather, especially in wet localities. The dropping of mark- 
ing chalk or similar materials also makes floors slippery. 

Seats for Employees 

It is surprising in how few shops managers seem to realize the 
value of providing workers with proper seats when the operation 
on which they work is one that can be performed while sitting or 
one during which they can sit between operations. The seat 
prevents unnecessary fatigue and so directly promotes efficiency 
and a larger output of better product. Very seldom do we find 
that any effort has been given to the kind of seat necessary for 
the class of work in which the operator is engaged. The time 
must soon come when seats will be adjusted to the body of the 
individual, instead of adjusting the individual to the seat. Seats 
for resting should have recHning backs, but seats provided for 
operators at benches or machines should be of a type that can be 
adjusted with reference to the height from the floor and should 

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ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY 

have a back that can be adjusted to a correct working posture, 
giving support where needed. When the seat is so high that it 
takes an operator's feet from the floor, a foot-rest should be 
provided, preferably one which will swing. It should not be 
attached to the seat but, preferably, to the under side of the work 
bench or table. If the foot-rest is attached to the chair legs 
there is a tendency for the occupant to catch his heels and fall 
when rising from his seat. When a number of people are sitting 
down they appear to be of the same height. There is not so much 
difference apparent in the length of their bodies as when they are 
standing. The greatest differences are usually in their thigh 
and leg bones. This accounts for the seat of the standard chair 
being i8 inches from the floor, a height not always comfortable 
or satisfactory to the operator. No matter how good the posture 
may be, if it is maintained for too long a time without change, in 
a room without an ample supply of good air, it is injurious and 
detrimental to performance of good work. i 

An examination of the seats provided in many factories shows 
a variety of attempts on the part of workers to make individual 
adjustments. Chairs with boxes and cushions on the seats, or 
with stilts and extensions on the legs, afford relief. Frequently, 
a clever worker makes a device to aid him in his work and so 
arranged that he may sit on it and travel easily along the front 
of his machine. Frequently, only a few simple adjustments are 
necessary to make comfortable seats and in many cases the pur- 
chase of adjustable seats to replace those long in use returns 
quick profit in the way of increased output. Many firms are 
planning proper seats, readily adjustable upon the frames, and 
as a part of the regular equipment of their machines. The Ameri- 
can Posture League has designed some very excellent seats for 
machines. 

Healthy Feet as a Factor of Safety 

Most important of all is the condition of the feet of workers — 
both men and women. There is an old saying, "If your feet ache 
you ache all over." It is usually true that if your feet ache at 

lOI 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

all they will ache whether you stand or sit, perhaps not so much 
while sitting. If he is conscious of having feet, an operator's 
mind is apt to be on his feet and not on his work and he is more 
likely to contribute to an accident which may injure himself or a 
fellow worker. 

Workers should learn to stand squarely on their feet. To do 
this the feet must be in good condition. If the feet hurt, one 
stands on one foot instead of both feet. The shoes are important. 
The practice of wearing any kind of old shoes with run-down heels 
should not be permitted ; and women while at work that requires 
them to stand should be compelled to wear shoes with proper 
heels and soles. Many of them wear shoes that not only impair 
their health and efficiency but also increase the possibility of in- 
jury. The investigation of the New York Department of Labor 
of all instances where women were substituted for men in in- 
dustry during the war, showed clearly that women suffered fre- 
quently from sprained ankles as a result of wearing high-heeled 
shoes while at work. 

Investigations recently made by the American Posture League 
of the feet of men and women showed that 14 per cent inflared ; 
56 per cent outflared ; and 30 per cent were straight. All feet are 
not alike. There is a difference even in the three types. It is 
thought by some people that the shoes worn influence the shape 
of the feet. The Posture League found, however, that among 
Chinamen, who wear no shoes, there was the same relative per- 
centage of inflared, outflared and straight feet. 

The War taught many men who entered the Army the neces- 
sity for wearing shoes that are large enough. Let us hope that 
this knowledge will become more general and that the manu- 
facturers of shoes will see the need of creating a product fit for 
use in industry, and will endeavor to educate people to purchase 
shoes of the right type for their feet ; shoes long and wide enough 
for comfort. Women's high-heeled shoes usually have thin soles 
unfit for wear in an industrial plant. It is hard to understand 
why a person who has to put in eight or nine hours at work can- 
not realize that good shoes are needed. Shoes with the soles 

102 



ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY 

half through afford no protection against nails. A nail can go 
through them just as easily as through paper. When people 
find out the primary cause of every accident we will know more 
about the number of stumbling and tripping conditions than we 
knew now. Many an accident credited to a machine as the pri- 
mary cause resulted from a slip or fall caused by wearing poor 
shoes in the proximity of a machine. 

Another essential of personal efficiency in industry is proper 
pose. Any man who entered the Army and went through the 
required course of physical training, and has had sense enough 
to follow what he was taught, will become a very much better 
man than he was before he joined. 

Ladders, Platforms and Stagings 

Walks for oilers are essential to good operation. In every in- 
stance we should get away from straight ladders and should use 
them only where it is impossible to erect a stairway. Ladders 
cause many accidents. A table of properly proportioned treads, 
and risers and the formula for determining them, constitute part 
of the practice of many builders and plant engineers at the pres- 
ent time. 

Very few persons realize what the nosing on a stairway is for. 
There are any number of factory stairs built within the past few 
years with a solid riser and without nosing. They are equipped 
with safety treads but the nosing does not go beyond the face 
of the riser, thus failing to give clearance for the heel. A person 
coming downstairs and stepping so that his heel strikes the solid 
riser will be thrown down the stairs. Many accidents are re- 
corded as due to falling downstairs. It is supposed the persons 
injured slipped or fell, when, as a matter of fact, they were 
thrown as a result of their heels striking a riser. It is more dan- 
gerous for a woman to come downstairs with solid risers than 
for a man, because of her skirts. The ordinary nosing should 
project at least seven-eighths of an inch from the riser, and where 
designed for the use of women particularly, such a nosing should 
project one and one-quarter inches. 

103 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

Although man prides himself on being the most intelligent of 
all animals he needs the greatest guidance for his safety. The 
lower animals by instinct, experience, or from necessity, have 
learned to protect themselves from danger and by caution and 
carefulness have developed protective measures against those 
dangers that menace them. The present state of American vi- 
tality and physical efficiency would be improved by a thorough 
physical examination of all working people and such examina- 
tions would be of great value if carried on periodically, to ascer- 
tain the injury caused by the industrial operations in which the 
workers are engaged. Dr. Eugene L. Fisk, Medical Director of 
the Life Extension Institute, has stated that death rates are not 
due to time but to what happens in the course of time, and these 
are some of the things that happen: Infection, poison, mental 
strain, mental inactivity, too much food, too little food, badly 
balanced diet, accidents and injury. 

Proper Illumination 

About 50 per cent of the accidents from handling material are 
caused by dropping material or tools on the hands or feet. More 
accidents from falling and stumbling occur in winter than in 
summer. Eliminating accidents caused from snow or ice we find 
that 23 per cent are due to inadequate lighting. There can be 
no question as to the wisdom of giving the closest attention to 
the proper handling of materials through the maintenance of 
proper aisles and gangways. One must realize at the same time 
that one of the most important factors in this work of accident 
prevention is that of properly Hghting aisles and gangways and 
eliminating glare. Proper illumination promotes the health, con- 
tentment, safety and skill of the employees; maintains a high 
standard of output, reduces the cost units of the product and is, 
therefore, materially beneficial to employers and employees. 

It is most important for employees to be examined for im- 
paired vision and where necessary they should be required to 
wear glasses. There still remains some prejudice on the part ot 

104 



ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY 

employers against employees who wear glasses. As a result o! 
this feeling some employees fail to wear their corrective glasses 
for fear they may be considered inefficient workers. 

The eye injuries for a certain period in the New York Navy 
Yard (where compensation is paid after the third day following 
an injury) cost the Government $1,200 in compensation awards 
while the men lost an additional $3,600. Under the New York 
compensation law payments are not awarded until after two 
weeks of idleness due to injury, consequently, had the same acci- 
dents occurred under New York State law, the men would have 
lost a far greater percentage than the men under the Federal 
Compensation Act. 

The loss through industrial accidents in New York State for 
the last fiscal year is estimated at $60,000,000, while the com- 
pensation paid amounted to approximately $15,000,000, although 
there were more than 30,000 fewer accidents reported in that 
period than during the previous year when industry was under 
war conditions with more people employed and working for 
longer hours than ever before. Many of these workers were in- 
experienced in the hazardous occupations in which they were 
employed. The figures for the New York Navy Yard indicate 
that the men lost in wages three times the amount of compensa- 
tion paid them, and that every accident we prevent saves more 
money for the workman than for his employers. When workers 
understand the fact that they pay the largest share of the cost 
of accidents they will realize the necessity for following safe 
practices and exercising individual caution. 

We know from the records of the Compensation Commission 
and the physical examinations for the draft how numerous hernia 
cases are, and the contention is often made by an employer or 
insurance carrier that a case of hernia did not result from the 
conditions of employment. Hernia is caused in many instances 
because a person does not know how to perform his work prop- 
erly. There is an art in working and a proper method of lifting 
and pulling. Athletes are taught to perform feats of strength 
properly which if attempted by those untrained or ignorant of 

105 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

the proper methods would cause serious injury. Many cases of 
hernia would be prevented if men and women were taught to 
work properly, or scientifically. They have to work most of their 
lives and it will add to their prosperity and the prosperity of our 
Nation if they could be in fit condition for industrial employ- 
ment during the allotted span of life and not permit themselves 
to become maimed and broken creatures dependent on a meagre 
compensation award. Further toll is claimed in the loss of op- 
portunity to the children or dependents of those injured. 

Questions and Answers 

Q. What has been your experience in getting working men 
and women to wear sensible shoes adapted to the conditions of 
employment? Do they resent a reasonable effort to provide such 
shoes at cost or do they prefer to wear their own shoes and so 
run the risk of injury? A. They prefer to take the chance of 
being injured and to wear their old shoes. They, naturally, do 
not care to wear their best shoes in the shop and so they wear 
out old shoes whether they are the proper kind or not. In shops 
with wet floors you will often notice girls wearing the same thin- 
soled shoes that they wear on the street. They have made no 
effort to provide themselves with shoes that will protect them 
against wet conditions. Some protection may be afforded them 
by a platform built over the wet floor. 

Q. Have you a reason why women will wear high-heeled shoes 
in the factory? A. I think I have even though I may not have 
the women's point of view. They can have a high heel and a 
fairly safe one but not so high as those commonly worn for style. 
If a person has been accustomed to wearing a high-heeled shoe 
and then is given a low shoe it probably does not feel comfortable. 
They can use what is known as the "Cuban heel," which, if kept 
levelled and straight, makes a more efficient shoe than those with 
higher heels. If the heels are allowed to run over the shoe is not 
safe. If women are going to continue working in the operations 
that they were performing during the War, they must be prop- 

io6 



ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY 

erly shod to do efficient work. Men are no better off when they 
wear improper shoes. A man wearing a shoe with a broad heel 
that is run down is probably not as efficient as the girl with the 
high heel. Shoe dealers explain the prevalence of high-heeled 
shoes as the only kind of shoes they can sell. 

Q. What is your attitude toward repairing old shoes ? A. A 
man does not need to wear new shoes in factory work if he will 
keep his old shoes in good condition. If he wears an old pair of 
shoes it is not necessary to have the soles worn through almost to 
his feet or the heels slanting at an angle of 45 degrees. Shoes 
are often discarded, which, had they been repaired in time, could 
have been used for a much longer period. The uppers were still 
in good condition but the soles or heels were gone. 

Comment 

By Mr. Chester C. Rausch 

Mr. Gernon made a statement about concrete and asphalt floors. 
If you have ever put your hand on a cold window you will have 
noticed condensed moisture. Concrete, asphalt, metal, steel or 
hard floors tend to condense the moisture in the soles of shoes, 
causing an uncomfortable sweating and chill in the feet, making- 
them sensitive, tired and sore. Linoleum, cork, carpet or some 
non-heat-conducting material prevents these conditions because 
such material allows the area on which the foot stands to be- 
come practically of the same temperature as the sole of the shoe. 
The small amount of moisture that comes through the sole of 
the shoe continually condenses on the substance one happens to 
be standing on, but if this surface is damper than the shoe soles, 
then the feet become wet, damp and cold. 



107 



VII. 
HEATING AND VENTILATION 

By Chester C. Rausch, Assistant Director, Safety Institute 

of America 

THE human body, whether at rest or at work, requires energy 
and this is obtained from the food and water taken into 
the stomach. The energy derived from this food material is 
taken out by the blood during the process of digestion and 
whatever material is not assimilated, because it is not adapted 
to use by the human body, or because there may be an excess of 
any particular kind, passes out of the digestive tract In the form 
of feces or urine. A small quantity of these waste products 
passes out through the pores of the skin and through the lungs. 
Although this amount is relatively small it is highly important. 
The functions of the lungs and pores are not, however, primarily 
concerned with the processes of digestion. 

The Function of the Lungs in Maintaining Physical 
Efficiency 

When a person performs work a chemical reaction takes place 
in the cells of the muscles and a certain amount of acid waste 
is created. This waste is absorbed by the blood stream which 
then goes to the lungs for cleansing by contact with the oxygen 
in the air breathed. Any failure of the lungs to function prop- 
erly in the elimination of waste and the restitution of a proper 
amount of oxygen causes the blood stream to be loaded with a 
poison that spreads through the entire body, affecting the organs 
of the body and resulting in the impairment of a person's effi- 
ciency. If long continued, this may result in a diseased condi- 
tion of other parts of the body, and if continued without some 
efifort to improve the condition may result in death from auto- 
intoxication. 

The lungs are composed of many minute cells. In the thin, 

io8 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

delicate tissue forming the walls of these minute cells there is a 
large circulation of blood. This blood, during its circulation 
through the lung tissue, comes very near the surface so that 
there is an absorption of oxygen by the blood and a passage of 
the products of waste from the blood to the air, consisting 
mainly of water vapor, carbon dioxide and some organic pro- 
ducts. This moisture laden air when breathed out also contains 
germs that may have been breathed in recently and have not yet 
been killed in their sojourn in the lungs, or those germs, peculiar 
to a person that have been thrown into the lungs by the blood 
as waste. All of this waste must be eliminated freely and thor- 
oughly and to accomplish this work the introduction of fresh 
air in rooms occupied by human beings is absolutely essential and 
necessary to life. It is perfectly well known that people are 
sometimes suffocated in trunks, closets or other confined spaces ; 
because of a lack of oxygen and an opportunity to rid the 
body of the wastes just mentioned they are actually poisoned 
to death. Strangulation produces the same result more quickly. 
To get some idea of how the lungs work one may consider a 
porous earthen jar filled with water and placed in an atmosphere 
containing odors or chemical gases. It is well known that these 
gradually affect the flavor of the water in the jar in the same 
manner as food wrapped in apparently tight packages in re- 
frigerators will frequently absorb the flavor of other foods pres- 
ent. On the other hand, fill the jar with water containing alcohol, 
or some material with recognizable odor, and in a short time this 
odor will come out through the porous earthen jar and be de- 
tected in the flavor of the food. In these cases there is an inter- 
change from the air to the contents of the jar, or from the con- 
tents of the jar to the air, in exactly the same way that there 
is between the lungs and air. It is in this way that the lungs are 
continually at work. Though the action of the lungs is extremely 
delicate, yet their construction is such that they are capable of 
a considerable amount of abuse without serious harmful effects 
being noted, due, in a measure, to the remarkable ability of the 
human system to adapt itself to conditions and to build up lesions 

109 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

and other protection over injured parts. The vital importance 
of healthy lungs and plenty of fresh air is now evident. 

If the air breathed contains minute particles of matter in the 
form of dust these may in time coat the lung cells with a film not 
acted upon chemically by the fluids of the body, thus reducing 
the working surface of the lungs which cannot then function as 
they should. This coating is much the same as the scale that 
forms on the tubes of boilers. In some cases the dust or fumes 
that enter the lungs come in contact with its fluid coating, chang- 
ing its structure by a chemical action. 

The Nose, Mouth and Throat as Gateways to the Lungs 

In addition to the lungs, the nose, mouth and throat, together 
with the bronchial tubes, form an important part of the breathing 
system. The nose, which is the natural entrance for air, is filled 
with passages that more or less loop back upon each other and 
are covered with fine hairs. These passages and the mouth and 
throat are covered with a mucous that absorbs the greater part 
of any dust, and many of the chemical fumes, which enter the 
nose. This is evident in the dirt that collects in the crusts which 
form in the nose and in the phlegm and sputum that may be re- 
moved from the throat after working in the presence of dust. 
What is not snared, absorbed, changed and removed in this man- 
ner, passes on to the lungs where, unless it is acted upon and 
changed by contact with the moist surfaces, remains as a perma- 
nent deposit, some of which may later be coughed up. The lungs 
of miners and those who work with graphite, slate, emery dust 
and other more or less insoluble and inert substances, have been 
shown upon examination after death to be heavily coated with 
a brilliant sparkling deposit, depending upon the substance 
breathed, making it easy to understand why death was caused 
from pulmonary disturbances and diseases. 

Dust and Fumes and Their Effects upon the 
Respiratory Apparatus 

Dust is everywhere and cannot be wholly eliminated. Even 

no 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

what is known as pure air, and such air as is found on mountain 
tops high above contamination from any manufacturing waste 
or smoke, contains some dust. Dust, however, has some value. 
To it we owe our blue sky, the fact that we can see within doors 
during daylight and our rain and snow. The amount of this 
fine, almost imperceptible, miscroscopic dust between us and the 
sun is what makes the sky appear to be blue. This same dust 
reflects sunlight into buildings where the sun does not shine 
directly. If it were not for this fact any place upon which the 
sun did not shine directly would be in total darkness. Each small 
particle of dust acts as a prism or mirror to reflect the sunlight 
into those places where the sun cannot shine directly and gives 
us what we ordinarily know as daylight as distinguished from 
sunlight. When moisture condenses and grows upon minute 
particles of dust as a beginning, rain drops and snow crystals 
form. 

Dusts are either chemically active or inert. Granite, graphite, 
emery and coal dust are chemically inert and usually exist for 
the most part in a fairly bulky state and do not become so finely 
divided that they float far from the place where they are created. 
These dusts, however, may be breathed into the lungs in such 
quantity and in a condition so finely divided as to form a perma- 
nent paste-like coating which covers the surface of the lungs, 
causing serious injury. 

There are chemically active dusts such as wood, leather, flour, 
starch, tobacco and a host of others in the form of coloring mat- 
ter and chemical compounds that break up into harmful pro- 
ducts on the damp surfaces of the throat and lungs, depositing 
material which remains in the form of a paste, or that acts 
destructively upon the tissues of the lungs and throat eventually 
causing disease or death. Fumes are usually either water vapor 
carrying dust in suspension, chemical vapors or gases, or a com- 
bination of them. Smoke is a dry chemical dust of very finely 
divided particles, so fine and light that they disappear into the 
air. Much of the color of smoke is due to gases that change 
their chemical nature and appear only when in the air, par- 

III 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

ticularly those from hard coal and the burning or roasting in- 
cident to chemical and smelting operations. Odors, as we com- 
monly know them, are offensive because of the peculiar impres- 
sion that they create on the nerves of smell and regardless of 
whether the fumes from which they arise are visible or harmful. 
These odors are usually due to chemical disturbances as the inert 
dusts usually give one only a sensation of being smothered. 
Good air is, therefore, free from harmful dusts, fumes, vapors 
and odors. 

The foregoing explanation shows plainly how sensitive the 
human lungs are to effects caused by fumes or dusts of any sort. 
This fact is recognized and used in medical work when it is 
necessary to produce unconsciousness by means of an anaesthetic. 
For conscious existence it is necessary to have a certain amount 
of oxygen supplied to the body. The substitution for this oxygen 
of any other substance, or the reduction of the usual amount, 
lowers sensibility and, if continued far enough, produces such 
complete insensibility that major operations may be performed 
without consciousness of pain on the part of the patient. The 
use- of ether, chloroform, nitrous oxide or any similar anaes- 
thetics, merely places in the blood stream, by contact with the 
blood in the lungs through the ordinary function of breathing, 
a substance which does not act chemically upon the blood but 
merely replaces the oxygen, gradually producing a condition of 
stupor or unconsciousness, the degree depending upon the amount 
inhaled. If this gas inhaled acts chemically — like carbon monox- 
ide or illuminating gas — ^there is direct poisoning through chemi- 
cal action in the blood corpuscles and death may come quickly 
unless relief is afforded. 

This same condition is approximated to a greater or less de- 
gree in factories or in any place where the air is not pure. Small 
amounts of most gases, fumes and dust cause chemical changes 
in the blood that are far more harmful than the inhalation of 
large amounts of anaesthetics whose action is one of substitution 
and dilution only. It is for this reason that the harm caused by 
fumes and dust can never be fully known and explains why so 

112 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

much effort is made either to remove them at their source, or to 
collect and remove them after they have become dissipated 
through the atmosphere where people congregate. It may safely 
be said that any fumes or dusts inhaled cause some definite effect 
in the system, even though the quantity inhaled may be extremely 
small. 

The Maintenance of the Bodt's Normal Temperature 

The body normally has a temperature of 98 degrees. The 
maintenance of this temperature depends upon a sensitive portion 
of the brain near the base, which is virtually an automatic ther- 
mostat, capable of adjusting the conditions of the body to meet 
sudden and extreme changes of outside temperature. The failure 
of this control during fever or in low temperatures results in 
death because the body is not able to meet the severe demands 
of this controlling device under these conditions and so approxi- 
mate the natural conditions that will sustain life. 

If the body is too warm the temperature control causes sweat- 
ing and increases respiration. Sweating causes moisture to ap- 
pear on the surface of the body, in excess of that ordinarily 
present, where it has an opportunity to evaporate. The evapora- 
tion requires heat and this is taken from the nearest source, the 
body, thus reducing its temperature. An increased respiration 
with its consequent deeper intake of the breath, results in more 
air passing through the lungs where it absorbs moisture from 
the inner surfaces and this moisture in turn is taken directly 
from the blood through the mucous lining of the lungs. The 
evaporation of moisture in the lungs also reduces temperature 
and helps directly to cool the body. This phenomenon of cooling 
by evaporation is familiar to us all because we know what hap- 
pens when our hands are wet and we blow upon them or when 
our clothes become saturated or our bodies wet and we stand in 
a breeze. 

Any unusual evaporation of moisture from the body in the 
form of perspiration, or from the lungs also explains why we 
drink more water in the summer than in the winter. The evapo- 

113 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

ration must be made up in some manner and this is the usual 
and natural way. It also explains why one becomes warmer if 
the perspiration is worked from the body during excessive pers- 
piration. The amount left and available for evaporation is 
greatly reduced and it takes a longer time to cool off. If it were 
not for maintaining a more comfortable condition in connection 
with the body and its clothing it would be better to remain as 
moist as possible with perspiration than to remove it. 

There is always evaporation of moisture from the surface of 
the body. Even though the body may feel dry the surface is 
always moist, a fact quickly detected by placing any portion 
against a cold object, such as a pane of glass or a cold plate. If 
the air of a room is excessively moist, the natural evaporation 
and the extra evaporation called for by perspiration caused by 
hard work, or by excessive heat, cannot take place. This con- 
dition, frequently resulting in heat stroke, occurs in boiler rooms, 
laundries, bleacheries and other places where the air is saturated 
with a great amount of steam. If the air is very dry, and very 
warm, the evaporation is greatly increased and heat stroke re- 
sults quite as quickly as a result of excessive evaporation as of 
sluggish evaporation. 

Moving Air and the Danger from "Drafts" 

Where air is breathed by many persons it is better to have it 
in motion if it is not possible to change it frequently by adding 
a continual supply of fresh air. Moving air causes a more even 
distribution of heat by stirring up and mixing the cold layers 
at the bottom with the warm layers at the top of a room, dis- 
tributes offensive odors by dilution and allows the air to be more 
thoroughly used up than if it remained practically at rest. There 
is also a certain advantage in moving air because it gives a sense 
of freshness and induces a momentary and comforting change in 
the temperature. Many systems of ventilation are arranged to 
admit air in puffs a few seconds or minutes apart, or to provide 
entrance for the air in such a way that there is a continual move- 
ment through the room, not sufficient, however, to give a sense 

114 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

of a draft or to cause the effects frequently attributed to drafts. 
The danger in a draft does not lie in the freshness or the im- 
purity of the air, or upon its temperature necessarily, because one 
may catch cold by sitting in front of a fan moving extremely 
warm air very nearly as readily as in front of one moving cold 
air. The "cold" is caused by the effort of the body to protect the 
area exposed to the draft. To accomplish this an extra supply 
of blood is sent to the exposed surface to keep it warm, as the 
wind blowing upon it causes excessive evaporation and a conse- 
quent drop of temperature. This congestion may draw sufficient 
blood from other portions of the body to permit dormant infec- 
tions to become active or to reduce the vitality in such a way that 
a "cold" results. 

The area just below the base of the skull and three or four 
inches down the neck below its junction with the back, is the 
most sensitive area of the whole body to changes in temperature. 
It is here that the largest part of the nervous system, passing 
through the back bone, is brought nearest to the surface and yet 
has the least amount of protection. The customs of providing 
extra protection here, in the form of a little pad on the neckband 
of most winter underwear, of turning up the coat collar and 
wearing mufflers, or neck pieces, during cold weather have re- 
sulted from a natural recognition of this conditon in our bodies. 
It has been said that if the back of the neck and the wrists, 
which are equally sensitive, are kept warm, a sense of comfort 
is always assured even though the rest of the body be cold. 

Some Simple Methods of Insuring Fresh Air with 
Proper Temperature 

There is one principle in all problems concerned with ventila- 
tion or the removal of dust and fumes which should be recog- 
nized, namely, that hot air rises and cold air falls. Many of us 
know from experience that balconies in theatres become uncom- 
fortably warm long before persons on the floor detect the rise 
in temppature. It explains why our hot air furnaces are placed 
in the basement rather than in the attic and why we place ice in 

115 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

the highest part of the refrigerator rather than in the lowest 
part. Many people fail to recognize this principle in a refriger- 
ator and consequently believe that the coldest place is at the top. 
This is apt to be true only when material can be placed beside 
and in contact with the ice. Note the next time you open a 
refrigerator door, by placing your hand below the lower end of 
the sill, how quickly the cold air comes out. If you are a gentle- 
man who happens to smoke, go about the house gently blowing 
the smoke in the vicinity of radiators or registers and note how 
quickly it indicates the movement of air. 

There is little difficulty in heating the second floor of the or- 
dinary house but frequently trouble is experienced in heating 
the first floor, particularly if a warm air furnace is used. This 
is due to the fact that in the older installations all the air that 
passes through the furnace is taken from the outside, heated and 
forced into the upper rooms. Being warm it naturally rises to 
the top floors and the cold air finds its way to the first floor by 
means of open doors and stairways, and, together with what 
leaks in about windows and outside entrances frequently fills 
the first floor with an abundance of cold air. Many such sys- 
tems have been improved so that they work with entire satisfac- 
tion by connecting some one room on the first floor, generally 
open to several others, and preferably the main entrance hall, 
by a large flue to the cold air entrance of the furnace, thus re- 
circulating the air within the house. This need not interfere 
with good ventilation because it is possible by making proper 
connections to take a small portion of fresh air through the 
cold-air pipe connected outdoors and mix it with the cold air 
that is returned from the house. The ordinary residence permits 
enough leakage about windows and open doors to furnish ample 
ventilation for an average family and the lower the temperature 
the greater the leakage. This remedy recognizes the principle 
that cold air naturally seeks the lowest place in the house and 
the fact that there is no limitation to the amount of air that can 
be circulated over and over within the house as opportunity is 
given. A house tightly closed can only receive hot air through 

ii6 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

the furnace when there is leakage outwards through windows, 
doors and walls. 

It is advisable in factories and in residences to provide vesti- 
bules connected to the outside so that during the entrance of 
people or the loading of teams, or at any other time when ma- 
terial must be taken through outside doors, it is not necessary 
to leave the entrance open to the outside air. This arrangement 
prevents a sweep of cold air from entering and seriously inter- 
fering with the comfort of the occupants as well as upsetting 
the operation or overtaxing the heating system of a shop or resi- 
dence. Where vestibules are not possible it is sometimes feasible 
to introduce screens to deflect the air into passages where it must 
come in contact with heating coils or pipes before it can blow 
directly upon employees or cool the vicinity where they work. 
Many employees are compelled to suffer with cold feet and legs 
because of such conditions or because the radiating surface is 
not sufficient, or the heating apparatus adapted, to stir up the 
air in the room, or it is placed too high in a room in which there 
is little or no machinery, or few persons moving, that would 
tend to stir up the air and so bring it to a more uniform tempera- 
ture. Where the employees are few, dependence is frequently 
placed upon the use of window boards to permit the air to enter 
through the windows, deflecting it upwards so that it draws warm 
air from the room to mix with it, thus increasing its temperature 
to a comfortable point and eliminating cold drafts that would 
otherwise blow upon the heads and shoulders of employees. 

It is better to have many windows opened slightly, thus creat- 
ing very small and well distributed inlets of fresh air, than to 
depend upon a few openings liable to create strong drafts. In all 
ventilating plans, the comfort of the majority and not of an in- 
dividual should rule. To further facilitate window ventilation, 
the tops of windows should be opened slightly to permit the 
warm air to go out and so increase the tendency of fresh air to 
come in from below, although in many cases the natural leakage 
through the windows or through stairways and elevator shafts 
in factories, is sufficient to accomplish this. Windows should 

117 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

never be opened toward the wind if it can be avoided. Where 
windows are used in this way and provided with curtains some 
device must be arranged to keep them captive so they will neither 
flap in the wind nor suck up and close the openings. 

Glass is an excellent conductor of heat, consequently of cold. 
On a cold day many of the factories now made with the greater 
proportion of the sides composed of glass present conditions 
almost identical with those in refrigerators. It is not uncommon 
to see large areas of glass coated with frost, the temperature 
of which is as low as that of a cake of ice. For this reason fac- 
tories should be designed with sufficient heating surface to meet 
the worst conditions that may be encountered and this, if direct 
radiation, should be placed below such large areas in order that 
the passage of warm air from them up and by the windows will 
tend to heat the air that is chilled through coming in contact with 
them. For the same reason skylights should be provided with 
radiation underneath in order that the air that is chilled by con- 
tact with them will not settle upon the workmen below. The ad- 
vantages of a forced draft system of ventilation in such cases is 
due to the fact that the velocity of the air as it leaves the heat 
pipes is sufficient and may be arranged to bring this about with- 
out the necessity of direct radiation in the vicinity of the cold 
surface. 

A window composed of cheese-cloth in place of the regular 
sash will admit less cold because of its lower heat and cold con- 
ductivity than will the same amount of glass. Cheese-cloth in 
windows will also prevent drafts though still admitting an 
abundance of air. In some shops ample ventilation is secured 
by introducing a certain number of sashes that are covered with 
cheese-cloth and this scheme is frequently followed in hospitals, 
particularly those treating tubercular cases where an abundance 
of fresh air without draft must be supplied. 

In the maintenance of an even and normal temperature nu- 
merous other conditions must be taken into account. A decided 
increase in the temperature of a workroom takes place upon the 
arrival of the workmen; an increase proportionate directly to 

ii8 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

the number. It is well known from experience how quickly a 
theatre becomes warm if the natural means of ventilation are 
obstructed. The advent of the sun also quickly changes the cold 
side of a building into a source of heat, particularly if it be com- 
posed of glass so that the sun may shine through into the room 
or quickly raise the temperature of the glass. This condition 
is not greatly altered even when the wind blows on such surfaces. 

In buildings composed of sheet metal or thin wooden siding 
this is an extremely important matter. Experiments conducted 
in the Panama Canal Zone showed that there was a difference 
of fifteen degrees in temperature at noon on a given day in two 
adjacent sheet metal buildings, one of which was painted black 
and the other white. Black absorbs heat, white radiates heat, and 
on such buildings the lighter the paint that can be used the more 
comfort will be experienced by the inmates. This fact is also 
of value in connection with the material that may be stored in 
such structures, particularly if such material is subject to de- 
terioration at high temperatures. 

In addition to these causes there are many processes that of 
themselves create heat, either from the use of steam or water or 
of the direct combustion of fuel. All these features must be 
recognized and the heating apparatus adjusted accordingly, other- 
wise the heat that was provided to warm a building that was cold 
at midnight to a workable temperature at 7 o'clock in the morn- 
ing will make the place unbearable at noon. 

Methods of Heating 

There are several methods of heating. In the direct method, 
pipes filled with steam or hot water or even hot air radiate heat 
directly. Stoves may be used in some cases where rooms are 
small but in large rooms they must be kept at such a temperature 
as to make an area about them extremely uncomfortable unless 
they are protected by a shield which completely surrounds the 
stove like a skirt and at some distance from it and so opened at 
the bottom that the cold air is pulled in by the stove, thus creat- 

119 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

ing a circulation of warm air through the room. Many rooms 
that have been heated by stoves unsuccessfully have been im- 
proved by this simple device. In cases where pipes are filled 
with direct steam at pressures greater than fifteen pounds rather 
high temperatures may result, particularly if this live steam is 
used in systems originally designed to use low pressure or ex- 
haust steam many degrees cooler. Care should be taken that cast 
iron radiators should be strong enough to resist the pressure to 
which they are subjected. 

In the indirect system the heating units, instead of being placed 
directly in the room, are placed in compartments either in the 
basement or in some other location and the air to be heated 
passed through them either by natural draft caused by the rise 
of the warm air or by fans which force the air over the heating 
surfaces. This method has the advantage that all direct radia- 
tion is removed from the room and the discomfort caused by it 
is eliminated. It is also easier to control the air as it enters the 
room and to maintain a uniform temperature by means of shut- 
off devices controlled by thermometers placed in the room being 
heating and set to operate when a given temperature is reached. 
There are other systems, such as the semi-indirect and the direct- 
indirect, but by whatever name they are known and whether 
they use hot air, steam under pressure or vacuum, they give 
heat in one of two ways — directly from the source or by heated 
air or vapor properly distributed. 

Air Conditioning Apparatus 

In modern installations one apparatus has been made to per- 
form at small expense a variety of operations. Heating coils 
permit the warming of the outside air to the required tempera- 
ture. Its subsequent passage through either a fine spray of 
water, or coke over which water is passing, will remove most 
dusts and many odors and provide moisture suitable for the par- 
ticular temperature. In the summer time the passage of warm 
outdoor air through the same device causes evaporation of the 

120 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

spray water, thus cooling the air. Such an arrangement fre- 
quently allows the introduction into work rooms of fresh air 
many degrees below that prevailing outside, thus considerably 
increasing the comfort of the employees. The arrangement of 
such devices and their thermostatic control, permits the main- 
tenance of conditions as nearly normal as can be expected, while 
the ability to wash and return air from a work room without the 
introduction of a large amount of exterior air, results in a greatly 
reduced coal bill and supplies air from which odors, and prac- 
tically all of the offensive accumulations from the breath of 
human beings, have been removed. This apparatus is part of the 
normal equipment of most public schools, hospitals, halls and 
many of the better class of workshops. 

Standards of Ventilation 

There have been various standards set for the amount of fresh 
air that should be supplied to each individual. Generally 30 
cubic feet per minute is considered sufficient when there are no 
other contaminating sources than the occupants in a room. When 
hard work is performed, especially in gymnasia, much more air 
should be supplied, depending on conditions which must, in all 
cases, be recognized. To supply the necessary amount of fresh 
air to several thousand workmen means the consumption of a 
great amount of coal for heating in cold weather and it has been 
shown thoroughly practicable to wash and reheat air from a 
workroom with the introduction of but a small amount of fresh 
air and without impairment of efficiency or harmful effects being 
noted. 

Humidifying the Air in Certain Workrooms 

In some factories, particularly in those manufacturing fabrics 
of wool, silk, and cotton, difficulty is experienced with the fibres 
in the fabric that stand erect in the presence of static electricity. 
This condition is caused by the fact that the dry fabric if it rubs 
over parts of the machinery, has static electricity created in it so 
that the process cannot be carried out successfully. Even the 

121 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

presence of mechanical devices for removing static electricity 
does not wholly eliminate the trouble and it becomes necessary 
to moisten or, as it is called, to humidify the air. This is accom- 
plished either by the introduction of moisture in the form of 
steam vapor, or by the dissemination of water in a state so finely 
divided that it approximates a mist or fog. Humidifiers are 
placed about the rooms in such a way that their efficient zones 
of operation overlap and their operation produces any desired 
quantity of moisture in the air. 

The humidifiers operate by compressed air or by centrifugal 
force; sometimes, by a combination of both. The water is 
sprayed in a finely divided state and thrown out by fans usually 
revolving in a horizontal instead of a vertical plane. In some 
factories this method of air-conditioning is supplanted by the 
air-washing method previously described and the necessary mois- 
ture is introduced during the washing operation. This same 
method is used in some factories to reduce the annoyance of 
dust by creating a damp atmosphere in which the dust will not 
readily float, a condition that tends to keep the dust largely in 
the location where it was created. This is particularly true in 
mills manufacturing starch, flour and similar food products, al- 
though it has not had a general application to any marked degree 
and requires skilled attention on the part of employees, who care 
for such apparatus. 

Mechanical Appliances for Moving Air 

There are a few special types of machines handling moving 
air that have advantages in some locations. Propeller fans, as 
they are commonly known, are inserted in walls or windows and 
discharge the air horizontally, although in some cases they oper- 
ate vertically in flues or in horizontal sections of a roof. These 
fans are constructed much after the fashion of propellers on 
air ships or boats and force the air outward in rather large 
volumes at slow velocity. They are relatively inefficient and are 
successful only when operated at moderate speeds. At higher 



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Standard Exhaust System for Buffing and Grinding Wheels 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

speeds they merely churn up the air without effecting a ready 
deHvery of the air through the opening. 

Many types of monitor ventilators or cowls are in the market 
designed to prevent air currents or outside wind from interfer- 
ing with the venting of air from rooms by natural conditions 
arising as the result of a difference in the temperature of the 
outside air and the air in rooms to be vented. Some of these 
are merely hoods that turn with the wind to prevent the air blow- 
ing down the opening or violently across it, and others depend 
upon creating a suction by the passage of air through its pe- 
culiarly designed parts. Under some conditions these operate 
with a reasonable degree of success but they cannot be compared 
in efficiency of operation with more positive types controlled by 
fans, piping and hoods locally applied. If there are natural con- 
ditions such as doors or windows also removing air from the 
room which these devices are supposed to ventilate, or if higher 
parts of the building are connected with the same room in such 
a way that there is a chimney effect induced in stairwells and 
shaftways, the tendency of these ventilators is to admit air from 
the outside as a convenient source rather than to remove it, a 
tendency opposite to the purpose for which they were installed. 
For this reason their installation should be sanctioned only in 
places where the conditions are applicable to their use and they 
should not be expected to accomplish what a mechanically driven 
fan does because they depend solely for draft upon the tendency 
of heated air to rise naturally or upon the suction created by the 
passage of the natural outdoor winds through them. 

It is obvious that in hot weather the difference between the 
temperature inside and that outside of a building may not be 
sufficient to create any draft whatever and that on many days no 
wind blows that will create a suction. For this reason such 
natural draft ventilators and cowls have been frequently con- 
demned when at fault neither mechanically nor in principle. 
Besides special ventilators of the cowl type there have been many 
efforts made to design and arrange sloping roofs and monitor 
sections fitted with tilting windows or with louvers to induce 

123 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

natural ventilation by the action of heated air inside a building 
or by blowing winds outside. They usually are so uncertain in 
their action and the possibility of failure to act properly so great, 
due to severe gales or gusty winds, as well as to open doors and 
windows affecting the air movements within a room and failure 
to keep the size of the openings properly controlled, that in large 
buildings dependence is seldom placed upon them. If carefully 
designed, kept in good repair and operated with reference to the 
ventilation of a room or section as a whole and not according to 
the whims of one or two individuals who may be locally affected, 
they may, and often do, result in an improvement of ventilation. 
The height and superficial area of a room, and the frequency 
with which large doors are opened, must be considered in their 
design. 

Methods of Controlling and Removing Dusts and Fumes 

There are few processes that do not create dust. The only 
successful, and usually the most economical, way to handle dust 
is to control and remove it as near as possible to the point where 
it is created. There is no line of safety or sanitary work where 
it is truer that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 
The situation is much like that of the ordinary house fly. Our 
grandmothers used to cover up their food with a small wire hood 
which could be conveniently placed over articles on the table or 
in the pantry, while the flies were allowed to roam freely over all 
other parts of the house and its occupants. Later, it became the 
custom to screen windows and doors, thus protecting both the 
food and the occupants of the house from contact with flies, or 
at least most of them. Now the tendency is not so much in 
this direction, although it is necessary to continue this type of 
protection, as it is to follow the practice adopted by the Army of 
removing every possible source upon which flies can breed or 
upon which the larvae and young of the fly can survive and grow 
to maturity. For exactly the same reasons dust should be re- 
moved at its sources. 

124 




Ventilating System for Removing the Excessive Heat From Four 
AND Six-roll Mangles in the Laundry 




A Row OF Body Ironers in a Laundry with Exhaust System for 
Removing Excessive Heat and Gas Fumes 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

In handling dust there are two methods that can be used : Re- 
moval by a sharp draft applied by a properly designed hood as 
closely as possible to the point where the dusts or fumes are 
made, or, where the nature of the work is such that it is neither 
possible nor convenient to have a hood of this type present, to 
provide a large hood which will remove a considerable amount of 
air in the vicinity of the work and thus cause a stream of air to 
flow over the work in such a way that the dust is caught in this 
air stream and carried into the hood. Where neither of these 
methods is feasible, it is necessary to remove the entire air con- 
tents of the room very frequently, taking the air in the general 
direction it tends to travel naturally and through many openings 
properly located. 

No type of dust or fume removal will be successful until ex- 
periment is made to provide a hood adapted to the particular 
work being done. It is not a job for the ordinary * 'tin-knocker" 
or tin-smith and frequently requires much time, patience and ex- 
perience to construct and adapt a hood, or to decide upon the 
method most suitable for the work in hand. Moreover, a con- 
siderable limitation is put upon the type selected by the nature 
of the material being handled, whether it is in very finely divided 
particles or in comparatively large pieces. For example, the dust 
from machines sandpapering the soles of shoes is considerably 
different from the chips that come out of a planer dressing hard 
wood flooring. 

Sometimes the processes require, or evolve, heat and the fumes 
or dust given off are of themselves heated and rise with a con- 
siderable amount of warm air. Other fumes, though warm or 
hot, are very dense and heavy and even when warm naturajly 
tend to fall toward the floor. Such features should be taken ad- 
vantage of and an effort made to provide a hood that induces a 
draft in this direction. Hoods over electrotype melting pots, 
over flat work ironers and galvanizing baths are typical illus- 
trations. 

In some plants the work must be performed in rooms in which 
there is a considerable amount of draft coming from all direc- 

125 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

tions and in which the dust and fumes created arise from a con- 
siderable surface, as for example, in the packing of merchan- 
dise. Such a condition is best met by providing a table, the top of 
which consists of heavy screen, slots or small openings, or a 
sand-blast room with a floor made of steel grating, with the fan 
connection made underneath so that the dust created and the 
dirt evolved fall naturally in the same direction as the air cur- 
rent and without passing the face of the operator. In many in- 
stances hoods that otherwise would work perfectly fail to func- 
tion because they are open on all sides and subject to the cur- 
rents of air sweeping through the rooms. Such hoods if pro- 
vided with two or three sides having adjustable slides and en- 
closing the point where the work is carried on or even lowered 
as far as possible without interfering with the work in hand will 
eliminate this trouble. Examples of this are frequent in places 
where spraying or painting is done by compressed air, where ma- 
terial such as dyed wool is removed from dye tubs or washers 
or where hoods are placed over oil or coal burning forges. This 
latter case is interesting because of its frequent occurrence. In 
the morning the shop is cold and much smoke is made when the 
fires are started and the heat from the fires has not created much 
tendency for the smoke and gas in the shop to rise. If a hood 
is designed to be placed close to and above the fire at such times, 
or when long heats are to be taken, much of the discomfort con- 
sidered inevitable in such places may easily be done away with. 

If the hoods necessitate a large volume of air to be moved it 
is obvious that the pipes and fans must be large. This type fre- 
quently takes less horsepower than those that require a relatively 
small amount of air moved at high velocity because of the tre- 
mendous reduction in friction due to the contact of the air with 
the sides of the pipe and its fittings and its rapid passage through 
the fan. This one feature alone frequently determines the use 
of this type in preference to that using a more intense draft. 

In the manufacture of shoes there is a considerable amount of 
sandpapering, trimming of leather and burnishing of polishes, 
stains and blackings. A shoe is a relatively small thing, and the 

126 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

quantity of dust, shavings and odors is small even when taken 
from a shop of large production. For this reason most of the 
dust removal systems in shoe shops use a sharp draft with small 
hoods. 

Safety Provisions for Dust Removal and 
Ventilating Systems 

In the layout of a system conveying air, or vapor, and whether 
used for heating or for the removal of dusts and fumes, consid- 
eration should be given to the nature of these substances to de- 
termine whether or not they will affect the pipes destructively, 
clog them up or cause explosion or fire. Water vapor and steam 
as well as most chemicals require fans and piping to be con- 
structed of special, non-corrosive material, or else to be fre- 
quently removed or coated with paint that will protect them. 
Dry dusts like wood, flour, coal, starch, grain and particularly 
cellulose and celluloid compounds, if suspended in a proper 
amount of air, may ignite and burn with explosive violence, or if 
the dust collects in small quantities may take fire spontaneously 
or upon a slight increase in temperature. In such systems care 
should be taken to see that the draft is sufficient to remove this 
dust from the pipes and the collectors and bins in which the dust 
is received must be cleaned frequently. In such systems (and 
in fact in all dust removal systems) it is advisable to leave hand 
holes frequently for cleaning out the pipes and in some others to 
provide explosion doors and dampers to prevent wrecking the 
machinery in case of dust explosions within. Pipes conveying 
moist air frequently pass through cold rooms or out of doors. 
Moisture in the air moving within these pipes is chilled and con- 
densed into liquids which may run back along the pipe, or leak 
out of joints not tightly soldered and cause damage. In such 
cases there should be proper drainage provided. Other pipes 
carrying cold air often pass through damp and steam-filled 
rooms. In such cases moisture condenses on and drips from the 
outside of the pipes and a trough must be placed underneath to 
remove the water that collects. In both cases, however, lagging 

127 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

or covering the pipes with felt or other heat insulating material 
will remove the trouble. 

Hoods should be provided with gratings if there is any possi- 
bility of the product, of tools or of other pieces being sucked in 
and carried through the system where they may cause serious in- 
jury through being violently expelled by the fan. All pipes should 
be securely fastened in order that they will not come down should 
they fill with dust. In designing piping follow as nearly straight 
lines as possible taking every precaution to avoid bends and mak- 
ing no bend that does not have its inner radius at least twice 
the diameter of the pipe. It is even preferable to pass diagonally 
across a room to avoid making a right-angle turn in a corner. 
Wherever pipes increase in size the increase in size should be at 
least 20 per cent. Hoods that are only infrequently used and 
many large ones that are used continually should be provided 
with dampers which are closed by the action of a lever so that 
the fan will not be compelled to handle its maximum quantity 
of air through hoods not in use. This will result in a saving in 
power and increase the draft at those hoods ordinarily in use. 
Enough hoods should be left open to prevent settling of ma- 
terial in the pipes from reduced velocity with a resulting impair- 
ment in service. When particularly abrasive material is being 
handled the pipes, and particularly the elbows, are often badly 
and quickly worn so that they leak and reduce the effectiveness 
of the suction at the hoods. In extreme cases the pipe may be- 
come so weakened as to fall. 

The fan itself usually has but two hazards: The opening 
through which the air enters and the driving pulley or the motor 
or engine directly attached to and operating it. The opening 
can be guarded by a mesh, grid or screen and the driving mech- 
anism in a manner customary with such apparatus. 

In all systems handling dust or shavings it is not possible to 
deliver this material to the open air or to a furnace to be con- 
sumed. In these cases it is necessary to use a dust collector, 
a device that depends upon centrifugal action to separate the 
particles from the air, which then passes out and the dust and 

128 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

chips are collected. In other types the air passes through the 
meshes of bags which retain the material, and in still other 
types water is sprayed into the mixed air and dust and washes 
it out. In all of this apparatus there is little hazard and if prop- 
erly designed and operated it will remove all but an unobjec- 
tionable part of the dust. They do, however, like all pieces of 
apparatus handling dust, require attention to adjustment and 
care in maintenance and operation. 

Economic Value of Heating and Ventilating Apparatus 

In conclusion, it may well be said that no type of protection or 
prevention apparatus can, for so little expense, afford as much 
comfort as proper heating and ventilating apparatus. No type 
of equipment is more often improperly designed and installed or 
poorly operated or roundly cursed by those into whose charge it 
is placed than this. The comfort that could be afforded working 
people, the health that could be improved and the dollars saved 
by a study of apparatus now in use to better adapt it to its pres- 
ent work or that could be brought about by its installation, is 
perhaps as great as that which could be efifected by the same 
treatment of lighting equipment. It would strike subtle hazards 
affecting health and safety at their very source. 

Discussion: Contributed by Mr. John Roach, Chief of the Bureau 
of Hygiene and Sanitation of the Department of Labor of 
the State of New Jersey. 

The question of air conditioning is one of the most important 
that comes before Department of Labor officials. Dr. Fred- 
erick L. Hoffman, in the Menace of Dust, Fumes and Gases, 
says that more industrial distress results from bad air conditions 
than from all other causes combined. In his discussion of the 
subject he shows us the terrible conditions that existed in some 
of the foreign industrial communities before dust removal ap- 
paratus became perfected. The tubercular rate among the 

129 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

grinders in Sheffield, England, was so large that it alarmed the 
government and lead poisoning and pulmonary troubles from 
dusts became the subject of a prolonged investigation by a com- 
mittee appointed from Parliament that made an investigation 
covering several years and led to the adoption of most drastic 
industrial legislation designed to protect the health of the worker. 
The legislation became operative in 191 2 and the war came sev- 
eral years later, so that we have no accurate record as to how 
effective that legislation was. The authorities all agree that, 
while the risk to the industrial worker on account of moving 
machinery is great and many serious accidents happen, and the 
risk from fire to workers locked up in factory buildings is also 
great, by far the most serious risk presented in industrial life 
is that from bad air conditions. I suppose we have less positive 
general knowledge on this subject than we have on any other. 
Most of the knowledge on the subject of air-conditioning and 
dust-removal and of decreasing the excessive humidity in the 
air, is locked up in the breasts of the engineers who are employed 
by the great ventilating concerns, but due to the activity of vari- 
ous organizations a great deal has been written in current indus- 
trial literature on this subject, especially during the past several 
years. 

About seven years ago we took up in New Jersey the question 
of air-conditioning in hat shops. Air conditions in hat factories 
had been bad for many years. There were rooms so saturated 
with steam that the side walls and the roof dripped steadily. 
Men have been seen working under such roofs under umbrellas. 
It seemed that there were almost insurmountable conditions in- 
volved in the conditioning of the air in such shops. 

Several shops in Southern Connecticut had installed elaborate 
and extremely expensive air-conditioning apparatus that was not 
a success. It had been installed at a time when the question it- 
self had not been well understood and the amount of knowledge 
on natural conditions was not great. Experiments convinced engi- 
neers that several things were necessary to make that kind of 
apparatus successful. In Connecticut they installed this appa- 

130 



HEATING AND VENTIUATION 

ratus in a loose type of building with small air holes and cracks 
in the side walls; a building that to the casual observer looked 
tight but which was nothing more than a sieve. No engineer 
could approximate the condition that would occur in such a build- 
ing when he dropped 5,000 or 50,000 cubic feet of warmed air 
into it. To make the apparatus less expensive they drove 
highly heated air into the room and created an intense heat that 
was very uncomfortable to the workers with the result that they 
opened the doors, or if the doors were closed they knocked out 
the windows and threw the whole system out of balance, pri- 
marily because the system was not properly constructed. 

We found that kind of a system in a dye house located in Pas- 
saic — a tremendous plant and one of the largest in the United 
States. Several years ago I walked into that plant on a humid, 
snowy March day, and found a dreadful condition under which 
men were working — an intolerable condition. The air-condition- 
ing system in this plant didn't work ; it wasn't properly designed. 
The humidity was so great that it was almost impossible to stand 
it and the heat, compared with the open air, was intense and one 
could hardly see his neighbor 20 feet away. This is not an un- 
usual condition in dye houses throughout our country. In this 
case, the managers installed apparatus designed on more modern 
engineering principles that drops into the workroom something 
like 400,000 cubic feet of warm air per minute. That makes a 
complete' air change in from three to four minutes. Dropping in 
a larger quantity of air, warmed up to a lesser temperature, 
makes it more comfortable in workplaces and while the absorb- 
ing capacity of the air is less at the lesser temperature, there is 
sufficient quantity of heat to dry up the moisture that is in the 
room. By creating an interior pressure they Hft the steam out 
and away from the working zone. 

That principle works and I think it is sound. The working 
condition today in this room is comfortable. It ranges from 75 
to 78 degrees and I believe that it could be reduced were it 
thought necessary, but it is likely that that temperature is satis- 
factory for that kind of work. I see no reason why, in a properly 

131 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

designed dyehouse or bleachery, or other place where great quan- 
tities of steam are given off from open and exposed hot water 
vats, this type of apparatus should not be installed. It must be 
kept in mind, however, that it is not likely that that kind of 
apparatus will be successful in the open, loose type of factory 
building. The building must be constructed so that there is no 
leakage from the outside in and so that this interior pressure can 
be maintained and the moisture lifted out through a monitor that 
runs the full length of the roof of the building. We must al- 
ways keep in mind that we cannot creat the ideal condition in a 
plant of this kind where such process is carried on, but by apply- 
ing the modern engineering principles, breathing conditions can 
be made fairly decent independently of the process in which the 
worker is employed. 

The question of industrial dust is one of the most important 
subjects that comes up for consideration by a Department of 
Labor. I have found in eight or nine years' experience in fac- 
tory work that there are many dusty processes that need not be 
dusty. We need not remove the dust from the process, we need 
not even control it ; we can prevent it. 

Some years ago an investigation was made of the electrical 
porcelain industry in the city of Trenton and the workshops were 
found to be in a very dusty condition. Almost every process 
in the manufacture of electrical porcelain generates some dust 
and many of the processes require the excess glaze that is placed 
on the article to be removed by brushing. This creates an ex- 
tremely annoying dust. Apparatus to remove the dust was quite 
effective. Then a careful investigation to determine whether it 
would not be better to prevent the dust at its source was begun. 
The ware was dipped so that there was no excess glaze put on 
and it was found that there was no reason for the installation 
of this extremely expensive and rather sensitive dust-removal 
apparatus. 

In studying the question of the control of dust, we found, after 
a great deal of investigation, that it was almost always possible 
to localize dust and to remove it at the place where it was first 

132 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

made — at its point of origin. Moreover, this was a much more 
satisfactory way of handling a dusty situation than to put air- 
conditioning apparatus in a work room to completely change the 
air in the room for all the workers. 

Instances of that kind may be found in the pearl button in- 
dustry where it is nearly always possible to remove the dust at 
the point of origin. In the State of New Jersey there is one of 
the largest woodworking plants in the world. The dust condi- 
tions there were of a most perplexing character. Some four or 
five hundred young women were engaged in sandpapering 
wooden boxes for phonograph machines. They had to sandpaper 
the surface down to a smooth satin finish and the work was car- 
ried on in all parts of the room so that it was not possible to put 
one of these boxes under a hood and draw the dust up or down 
or out in any other way. The condition in this plant was cor- 
rected after a long time by putting in air conditioning apparatus. 
Pipes were run the full length of the room; drops were put on 
at about eight-foot centers to within eight or ten inches of the 
floor, removing a tremendous quantity of air and changing it 
every three minutes. The pressure was from the top and down- 
ward. In that room today the working conditions are good. 

Questions and Answers 

Q, Some years ago a gentleman who was a flour tester de- 
clared "he didn't expect to live long." He afterward died. He 
always had a profuse perspiration in his hands, and I would like 
to know if someone can explain this. A. This flour tester was 
possibly one of those unfortunate creatures who suffer from 
profuse perspiration. Some of us have that trouble either locally 
or generally. Evidently, this man used to become thoroughly 
coated with flour dust; a case where the function of the pores 
was probably interfered with. A story is told of a circus girl who 
had a special act in which she covered herself with gold leaf. She 
subsequently died because the gold leaf covering stopped the nat- 
ural egress of her bodily poisons, suffocating her body by closing 

133 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

up the pores. This condition occurs in some occupations from 
the actual closing of the pores, due to the action of chemicals 
on the surface of the skin so that it becomes shrivelled or dried, 
covered with an eczema or other infection or unnatural condi- 
tion. The pores are then obstructed and the natural functions of 
the skin cannot be performed. In tanning a depilatory or sul- 
phite is used for removing the hair. Unless they protect their 
hands at such work, men are apt to have trouble very soon, be- 
cause the continual dissolving of the hair on their own hands by 
the depilatory opens up sources of infection, not only of pus- 
forming germs, but of skin and other diseases. These facts 
explain the necessity for taking frequent baths if one is em- 
ployed in any work that is so dusty that the deposits coat the 
skin to any extent. 



134 



VIII. 
ILLUMINATION 

By R. E. Simpson, Engineering and Inspection Division, 
The Travelers Insurance Company 

The Human Eye 

WE POSSESS the sensation of sight because of the coopera- 
tive relation between light waves and the various parts of 
the eye. To understand the fundamental principles of illumination 
it is first necessary to consider the eye as a piece of optical ap- 
paratus and to see how its various parts act when light waves 
strike them. You will note that the eyeball consists of three 
concentric layers or coats (Figure i) which surround and en- 
close certain transparent, refractive substances through which 
Hght-rays can pass easily. The outermost layer, which consti- 
tutes the protective covering, is composed of tough, opaque tissue 
and is called the sclerotic coat, a name derived from a Greek 
word meaning "hard." The part of this external layer that we 
can see when we look at another person's eye is popularly known 
as the "white" of the eye. A small part of this coat, at the front, 
is transparent, and is called the cornea, from the Latin word 
for "horn," a substance which is always translucent and which 
may even exhibit a glass-like transparency if cut into thin layers 
and suitably polished. No horn, however, ever approached the 
cornea of the eye in the perfection of its transparency, for 
the normal cornea is wholly invisible except when it is ex- 
amined in a good light and with the eye in profile. 

Injuries to our bodily tissues are repaired by the blood cells. 
Thoughtful persons often ask how the cornea of the eye can 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

recover from an injury when it apparently contains no blood 
vessels. The answer is that the cornea does contain blood ves- 
sels, but they are too small to allow the red corpuscles to enter 
them. Blood serum can flow through these channels, however, 
and the amoeba-like, white corpuscles, which are scavengers, 
protectors, and repair-artisans, can also enter. 

Immediately within the hard, outer covering or sclerotic coat 
comes the choroid coat, so named with reference to its vascular 
structure, the tissues of which are closely interwoven with blood- 
vessels and black pigments, the function of the latter being to 
prevent light rays from entering the eyeball, except through the 
cornea. This coat lies next to the sclerotic coat at all points 
except under the cornea, where it branches out and terminates 
in a flat, perforated disk composed of muscular fibers, nerve 
fibers and coloring matter and known as the iris. The central 
opening in the iris is the pupil and immediately back of the 
pupil is the crystalline lens. Next to the choroid coat is the third 
coat, or retina, which is the part of the eye that is sensitive to 
light. 

The lens is a transparent, biconvex (or double-convex), com- 
pressible body, having a certain amount of elasticity, and fastened 
to the choroid coat just behind the iris by a ligamentous sheet. 
The lens is a very important part of the eye. Its function is to 
focus upon the retina the light-rays that enter the eye from 
external objects. When using a camera we focus the entering 
rays upon the plate by moving the lens back and forth until a 
correct optical relation is secured between the lens, the plate and 
the object. We cannot move the lens of the eyeball in this man- 
ner, hence we do our focusing by changing the curvature, or 
degree of convexity, of the lens. This change is effected primarily 
by the muscles of accommodation, but also, in part, by the nat- 
ural elasticity of the lens. Sometimes the curvature of the 
cornea, or of the lens, is incorrect or irregular. In such cases 
clear vision cannot be had unless the eye is assisted by artificial 
lenses worn in spectacles, often from youth. Moreover, the 
natural power that alters the curvature of the lens begins to 

136 



ILLUMINATION 

wane at ages from 40 to 45 and has usually almost wholly dis- 
appeared at about 60. With increasing years it therefore be- 
comes necessary, even with normal eyesight, to perform the 
focusing for short distances by placing convex artificial lenses 
in front of the eyes. 

The analogy between the eye, as a piece of optical apparatus, 
and a camera is shown graphically in Figures — and — . The iris 
of the eye, by expanding and contracting, controls the amount 
of light admitted to the eye, just as we exercise similar control 
over the light entering a camera by manipulating the stop 
diaphragm. The action is the same in both cases. Focusing of 
the eyes is brought about by a change in the shape of the lens, 
while in the camera, moving the lens forward or backward until 
a clear image is formed on the ground-glass at the back accom- 
plishes the same thing. The sensitized plate in the camera re- 
ceives the impression determined by the stop-diaphragm and the 
lens, while in the eye a secretion on, or iu, the retina and cor- 
responding to the sensitized emulsion on the camera plate, re- 
ceives the impression. In either case a new and clear impression 
can be gained only after a renewal of the sensitive substance, a 
renewal effected in the camera by introducing a new plate; in 
the eye, by the regenerative activity of one of the layers of the 
retina. 

Figure i shows a vertical section of that part of the eye con- 
cerned with focusing. The choroid coat is not long enough to 
reach around the eyeball without stretching; consequently, there 
is a constant tension on the ligament connecting the choroid coat 
with the lens. This tension is communicated to the lens by the 
ligament so that the lens is flattened or made less convex; the 
natural, or resting, condition. When it becomes necessary, for 
focusing purposes, to increase the convexity of the lens, the 
ciliary muscle is brought into action. One end of this muscle 
is attached to the sclerotic coat and the other to the choroid coat 
just above the connecting or suspensory ligament. When the 
ciliary muscle contracts, the choroid coat is drawn towards the 
lens, thus diminishing the tension on the ligament and also on 

137 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

the lens. The lens, on account of its elasticity, then assumes 
the degree of convexity necessary for focusing. 

This complete operation is known as the ''action of the muscle 
of accommodation." It is constantly brought into play when 
we wish to view objects near at hand. The ideal and natural 
condition of the eye is that in which the muscle of accommo- 
dation is relaxed, and the tension of the choroid coat maintains 
the lens in as flattened a condition as possible. This condition 
is, no doubt, a reflection of the period of development during 
which mankind was not called upon to use his eyes on close 
work. Through its evolution the eye accommodated itself to 
age-long environment. Only since the invention of the printing 
press, and the more recent invention of brilliant, artificial light- 
ing sources, has the eye been extensively and generally applied 
to close work. These conditions mean that the muscles of ac- 
commodation are now called upon for greater exertion than they 
had to put forth originally, during the evolutionary period, and, 
as a consequenze, we hear much of tired, aching eyes. 

The iris, the terminal disk of the muscles of the choroid coat, 
possesses the property of expansion and contraction annularly 
and thereby controls, in large measure, the am^ount of light ad- 
mitted to the lens and retina through the pupillary opening. 

The third coat, the retina, is composed of several layers and 
the layer next to the vitreous humor contains an immense num- 
ber of exceedingly minute solid bodies, intimately concerned in 
some way or other with the activity of the retina. These are of 
two distinctly different kinds, known from their shapes, respec- 
tively, as rods and cones. It is a fairly well established fact that 
the cones are the organs that are associated with the tiny nerve 
fibrils that communicate the sense of sight to the brain, while 
the rods appear to secrete the substance known as visual purple, 
with which the retina is richly provided, and which is in some 
important way concerned with vision. The exact nature of the 
exceedingly minute machinery of the retina is not fully under- 
stood, but, were I to hazard a guess it would be this : The rods 
secrete the substance called visual purple and regenerate it after 

138 



CORNEA 




CILIARY. 
MUSCLE 
SCLEROTIC 









CIAPHRAGM^ 

M 1 


^ 


^^ ■ — 


^ 




1 






1 


[kjj 


l-^' 


8 ^ 


^vW"'^ 


IT- 




ij 




rr 


^^ 


-\ 


^^^^ l-K 


'>^^ 


^ 


LEN;=» "X 


1 


A 






plate/ " 



Figures i and 2 Show the Analogy in Construction between a Camera 
AND the Human Eye 




Figure 3 Shows Bony Construction of Nasal Passage into which the 

Lower Part of Eye Socket and Tear Duct Enter. Figure 4 Shows 

Muscles for Rotating Eyeball within Its Bony Socket 



ILLUMINATION 

it has been modified or decomposed, more or less completely, 
by the action of light. It is known that the light which enters 
the eye and strikes against the retina causes a profound change 
of some sort in the visual purple. I think it probable that the 
visual purple, when modified by the action of the light, acts 
upon the cones as a sort of irritant, and thereby stimulates the 
nerve fibrils that are attached to the cones. For present purposes 
it is sufficient to recognize the existence of the visual purple and 
to know that vision is not normal and healthy unless it is in good 
condition. 

The substance technically called "visual purple" is not, prop- 
erly speaking, purple in color. It contains altogether too much 
red to be accurately described in this way ; it is more nearly a 
deep pink. The visual purple is bleached by the action of light 
but the color is soon restored in the retina when light is excluded 
from the eye. Visual purple is readily dissolved by bile salts and 
this suggests that it is a substance in a state of colloidal suspen- 
sion. It is apparently not a protein, however, because trypsin 
does not attack it. If I may again venture a guess, I should say 
that the light does not really decompose the visual purple, but 
that it changes the phase in which it is present, and that the 
purple is restored to its original phase by the action of the rods. 
Whether this is what happens or not, it is certain that change of 
phase in colloidal solutions is characteristic of a vast number of 
the activities of the animal body that have hitherto been shrouded 
in mystery. 

We know that the visual purple is rapidly bleached when ex- 
posed to light rays and we cannot doubt that this bleaching 
process in turn induces action of some kind in the outer layers 
of the retina, and that the disturbance thus originated proceeds 
to the optic nerve and, finally, to the brain. 

It is evident that there are three important parts of the eye 
that must act in harmony if we are to have good vision. First, 
the iris, with its control over the area of the opening through 
which light rays may enter the eye; second, the muscles of ac- 
commodation and the lens, which together arrange for focusing 

139 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

the rays sharply upon the retina ; and third, the retina itself, 
which, responding to the stimuli of the light rays, relays the 
message to the brain. If any one of these parts fails to func- 
tion properly, defective vision results. It is the abuse of these 
parts by improper illumination that is a common cause of their 
failure. 

Effect of Improper Lighting Conditions Upon the Vision 

The eye and its behavior must always be considered when any 
problem in illumination has to be solved, else we shall be con- 
tinually committing absurd errors. There are few organs of the 
body whose failure to function properly may have such a potent 
influence on the causation of accidents as the eye. Obviously, 
a hazard that is unseen is more dangerous than one that can be 
clearly observed. An opening in an elevated passageway exists, 
no matter what the lighting conditions are. If there is no light, 
an accident is sure to result; but if the hazard is made evident 
by good lighting the danger may be avoided. Even though the 
observer be provided with light, hazardous conditions may be 
unnoticed. 

Excessive, inadequate or improperly used illumination may 
impair a workman's vision to the point where he becomes a 
menace to himself. Excessive light causes the iris to contract 
and it tends to maintain this position so long as the eye is sub- 
ject to the excessive light. When the muscles of the iris are 
kept under a constant strain they gradually become fatigued 
to the extent of slightly relaxing, thus permitting more light to 
reach the retina than is required for good vision. The excess 
light so admitted causes rapid bleaching of the visual purple, 
thus throwing extra work upon the rods of the retina in its 
effort to restore the purple. The sensitivity of the retina is there- 
by slowly reduced and a greater amount of light is thereafter 
necessary to produce a given sight-reaction. Thus the vicious 
circle works, seldom at a rate to cause alarm but slowly and 
insidiously until permanent impairment results. 

Sudden changes from close to distant work, or from fine to 

140 



ILLUMINATION 

rough work, require quick action on the part of the ciUary 
muscle, the choroid coat, and the lens, in order that proper focus- 
ing may be obtained. Unless the changes are made frequently 
during a considerable period of time, no harm results. Changes 
of this nature, however, are often accompanied by changes in 
the amount of light received by the eye, with additional demands 
for action on the iris and retina as well. We see, then, that 
improper lighting conditions may slowly bring about impair- 
ment of vision to such an extent that a workman becomes a 
liability not only to himself but also to those associated with him. 

General Principles of Illumination 

The business profession of illuminating engineering is to de- 
sign and install new light sources and to adapt and modify exist- 
ing ones so that they will aid the eye in producing the sensation 
of sight without, at the same time, producing harmful effects. In 
order that this may be realized, certain principles, or factors, 
affecting the action of the eye must receive due consideration. 
Among the more important of these are reflection, absorption, 
distribution, diffusion, intensity, unsteadiness, color and glare. 

Reflection 

We must, first of all, remember that we see an object partly 
by reflected light, that is, that the light waves emanating from 
any source of illumination strike an object and are redirected or 
reflected from that object towards the eye. The object is vis- 
ualized by this reflected light. It is evident, therefore, that our 
ability to see the object clearly depends largely upon the amount 
of light reflected, its coefficient of reflection, as compared with 
that of surrounding objects. A small sheet of white paper 
placed upon a larger sheet of the same material would not 
be readily observed by the average person because the coefli- 
cient of reflection is the same for both sheets. If another 
sheet, having a higher or lower reflective power, be substituted 
for one of the sheets, then both may be easily seen and dis- 

141 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

tinguished, although the intensity of illumination falHng on them 
has not been changed. 

Much harm has been done in the past, and is still being done, 
because of failure to recognize the importance of reflection. Il- 
luminating engineers have repeatedly directed attention to the 
harm that may be done to the eye by installing bright light- 
sources well within the line of vision. They have just as per- 
sistently pointed out the ill effects brought about by uncontrolled 
reflection; but, for some reason, this particular phase has not 
heretofore received due consideration in industrial lighting. 

There are two general types of reflection, although they are 
both based on the fundamental principle that the angle of re- 
flection always equals the angle of incidence. The first is regular, 
or specular, reflection proceeding directly into the eyes and is to 
be avoided at all times. It can best be described as the reflection 
obtained when a beam of light strikes a highly polished surface, 
such as a mirror. The reflected light has the same form and 
distinct character as the incident light and its direction is de- 
termined by the angle of the incident ray. It is possible, then, 
to stand in the path of the reflected rays, and although the eyes 
are turned toward the reflecting object the observer is, in effect, 
looking directly at the light source reproduced in the mirror 
in detail. 

This condition, in varying degrees, can be found in many of 
our factories and workshops. The sequence of events in a given 
case — say, when a man is working with bright sheets of tin — is 
as follows : The dazzling reflected light causes the iris to contract 
in an effort to protect the retina from excessive rays. So long 
as this continues the iris is under a strain. There is a limit, how- 
ever, to the protective power of the iris, evidenced by the fact that 
we instinctively close the eyelids or turn the head aside when 
we are confronted by brilliant automobile headlights or by direct 
sunlight, since more light is then admitted to the retina than it 
can conveniently absorb, and therefore, more light than is neces- 
sary for good vision. The retina thus becomes overworked 
and its sensitivity is reduced. The standard of vision necessary 

142 



ILLUMINATION 

to perform the work can be maintained only by a greater stimu- 
lation on the retina. This is brought about by relaxation on the 
part of the iris and is temporarily palliative for, in the end, the 
extra burden placed on the retina only aggravates the case. The 
average workman, finding that he cannot see clearly, will ask 
for more light, and, when this is provided in the form of a local 
lamp (usually without a reflector), more fuel is added to 
the fire. 

This case is typical of conditions to be found in varying de- 
grees in many workplaces and has special import to those whose 
duty is that of safeguarding workmen. A man, finding it neces- 
sary to go to another part of the shop, after working for some 
time under the conditions just described, may stumble over an 
obstruction in the aisle. The illumination in the aisle space may 
be more than is necessary for safe walking for one having 
normal vision and who would see the obstacle and either avoid 
or remove it. But the particular workman we have in mind has 
been temporarily deprived of normal vision and cannot see the 
obstacle, either to remove or avoid it. The resulting accident 
is due primarily to improper illumination, not at the place where 
the accident occurred but at the working place. The remedy 
consists in having the workman change his working position, or, 
if this is inconvenient, the lighting units can be altered so that 
the specular reflection is away from the worker and not towards 
him. 

Roughened or unpolished surfaces produce irregular or diffuse 
reflection and this type of reflection is most commonly encount- 
ered for the reason that this class of surfaces predominates. 
A piece of etched glass or a wall having a dull or stippled finish, 
will reflect light rays in many directions, because the incident 
rays strike countless minute plane surfaces set at various angles 
to one another, each of which redirects or reflects the light at a 
different angle from its neighbor. Dififuse reflection is simply 
a spreading out of reflected rays so that an object can be viewed 
from various angles without occular discomfort due to the re- 
flection. 

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SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

Absorption 

Absorption is the opposite of reflection. Light rays impinging 
on a surface are divided into two or three parts. One part is 
redirected or reflected, and so retains its form of radiant energy ; 
another part is absorbed and changed to some other form of 
energy (usually heat), while the third part will be transmitted 
through the body if it is transparent. If the body is opaque all 
the incident light that is not reflected is absorbed. Absorption 
is of interest because of its negative effect on good illumination. 
Accumulations of dust, dirt and grease on walls, ceilings, lamps 
and reflectors absorb light that could otherwise be directed to 
useful purposes. Economy in the operation of a lighting system 
requires light-colored walls and ceilings and these, as well as the 
lighting accessories, should be cleaned frequently. 

Distribution 

Distribution and diffusion are synonymous terms to the extent 
that they designate methods by which light may be spread out. 
The meaning of each term and the distinction between them 
may best be brought out by illustration. Let us assume that a 
certain area is to be illuminated and, also, that a looo-watt lamp 
will be required. A single unit of this size could be suspended 
in the center of the area but under this arrangement the remote 
parts of the area would have too little illumination; the central 
part, too much. If, instead of a single large lamp, we substi- 
tuted ten smaller ones each having one-tenth the candlepower 
of the large one, installing these lamps symmetrically, we would 
provide a far more uniform illumination throughout the area. 
We employ the same amount of radiant energy in either case but 
by dividing it up into smaller units we distribute it about so that 
each section of the area will get its share of light. 

Diffusion 

We obtain diffusion by equipping a light source with acces- 
sories designed to enlarge its area, usually in the form of an en- 

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ILLUMINATION 

closing envelope or globe composed of glass, which is inherently 
a diffusing medium. Instead of using a surface of clear glass 
we may employ one that has been treated by a sand-blast or 
etched with acid. The surface thus modified acts as a diffusing 
agent in exactly the manner described when were speaking of 
diffuse reflection. Another method consists in partially enclosing 
the light course, thus directing the light rays to a large surface, 
such as the ceiling, which then becomes a secondary source of 
diffuse light. It is evident, then, that distribution is obtained by 
dividing the available light into a number of units and dis- 
tributing them about the area to be lighted, while diffusion is 
gained by modifying or breaking up the light rays, and, to a slight 
extent, reducing the brilliance of the source. By distributing 
the light units systematically and modifying them by diffusing 
media, we can secure an even degree of illumination over a given 
area. Care should be taken not to carry the distribution of 
units to extremes. The largest unit (properly protected) that 
will give a satisfactory distribution of light should be used. 

Intensity 

Intensity is the quantity element of illumination provided by a 
light source and is measured in foot-candles. A foot-candle is 
the illumination incident on a surface normal (at right angles) 
to the ray of light at a distance of one foot from a unit candle- 
power. It is a term widely used in lighting practice and is gen- 
erally employed in designating the degree of illumination neces- 
sary to carry on a given class of work. It is the unit by which 
standard intensities of illumination are set forth in the Illuminat- 
ing Engineering Society's Code of Lighting for Factories, Mills, 
and Other Workplaces, and in the codes adopted by a number 
of States. The quantity of illumination can be measured directly 
by a foot-candle meter, a number of types of which are available. 

Unsteadiness 

The annoyance and irritation we experience when reading on 
a passenger train while it is passing a freight train is due to the 

145 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

rapidity and extremes in the variation of intensity. The range 
of intensity may vary several hundred per cent, and as frequently 
as two or three times a second. This interruption will continue 
until the trains are clear of each other. We sometimes encounter 
a similar unsteadiness of light in our industries, but it is usually 
less pronounced, though more sustained. The most common 
cause of flicker in such cases is moving machinery. The spokes 
of revolving pulleys and swaying belts cause shadows to pass 
back and forth over the work. One or more additional lamps 
may be so placed that the shadows will be obliterated or greatly 
softened. Alternating current in frequencies below 40 per second 
is likely to cause a flickering light, especially when small-sized 
lamps are used. Sharp changes in voltage will also cause un- 
steadiness and this condition inevitably occurs in systems in 
which both power and light are obtained from the same circuit, 
especially where the power demand is intermittent. The impor- 
tance of steadiness of light lies in the fact that with each change 
of intensity there is a demand on the iris to accommodate the 
pupillary opening to the intensity prevailing at the moment. The 
iris functions as a protective agent. This is indicated by the 
rapidity with which it will contract, thus making the pupil 
smaller, after being subjected to strong light, and the slowness 
with which it expands or dilates when low intensity prevails. In 
the extreme case cited above, of the passing of two trains, the 
eye, including the iris, is accommodated for the prevailing in- 
tensity before the trains begin to pass. Suddenly a freight car 
intervenes, shutting off a great deal of light and lowering its 
intensity. The iris has just started to expand to meet these new 
conditions when the space between two freight cars permits a 
beam of intense light to strike the eye and there is at once a 
spasmodic attempt of the iris to get back to the "eye-protective" 
position it had started to vacate. This cycle of action on the 
part of the iris continues until the trains have passed. 

Faulty voltage-regulation or low-frequency current causes 
variations in the radiant energy from light sources and, when 
these variations are great enough to cause an observable flicker, 

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ILLUMINATION 

they in turn cause a cycle of iris action similar to that caused by 
passing trains, although by no means as pronounced. A freight 
train may be passed in a few minutes and the annoyance is over, 
while in the shop the unsteady light must be endured for hours. 
What it lacks in intensity it makes up for in length of time. Un- 
steady light, endured day after day, will presently cause com- 
plaint about aching eyes and, unless corrective measures are 
taken, permanent impairment of vision may result. 

Color 

I called your attention, a few minutes ago, to the fact that we 
see an object partly by the light it reflects. To avoid confusion 
no mention was made, at that time, of the part played by color 
in vision, although color is exceedingly important. One of the 
white sheets of paper previously mentioned might be replaced 
by a colored sheet, a yellow one for example, having the same 
coefficient of reflection, and the two sheets would still stand out 
distinctly. The reason for this is that there is a difference in 
the selective reflection, or color properties, of the two pieces of 
paper. 

In a discussion of color in connection with lighting we must 
recognize the fact that the eye is subject to chromatic aberration, 
that is, it is not perfectly corrected for color perception. In or- 
dinary daylight the rays at the violet end of the spectrum focus 
in from the true focal point, while the longer red rays at the 
other end of the spectrum focus behind that point. This color 
aberration is slight, however, and does not cause us any incon- 
venience in the white light of day, but it does, no doubt, account 
for the reduction in visual acuity when daylight and one or more 
different-colored artificial light-sources are used at the same time. 
Of more immediate interest is the relation between color and 
absorption and reflection. In the textile industry an intensity of 
illumination adequate for work on light-colored goods may prove 
inadequate for work on dark-colored goods on account of the 
greater light-absorption of the latter. The same thing is true in 
other industries. In a foundry, for example, dull surfaces and 

147 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

colors predominate, yet some of the foundry products, as they 
come from the finishing department, may have bright surfaces 
and colors. 

Glare 

Some one has said that glare is "hght out of place." If this be 
accepted as a correct definition, then a remarkable thing about 
our lighting practice is the amount of light that is out of place. 
Perhaps a better understanding may be gained if we define glare 
as any brightness, whether directly from a light source or reflect- 
ing surface, that causes excessive eye fatigue or interferes with 
vision while in the field of vision. Glare serves no useful pur- 
pose but is a waste of energy. At most times it is a distinctly 
harmful waste. A familiar form of glare is that obtained by 
looking directly at the sun by day, or at an automobile headlight 
by night. When so pronounced glare does not do much harm 
because it causes us, instinctively, to seek immediate protection. 
The discomfort and danger are so great that they frequently 
nullify their destructiveness by the unmistakable and almost 
irresistible warning that they give. Less brilliant light-sources, 
such as our modern electric and gas incandescent lamps, when 
improperly used, may produce glare, either directly or indirectly, 
although the annoyance is by no means so great. 

There are two distinct ranges of glare: One in which the 
direct or the reflected light will unmistakably cause irritation, 
even when viewed momentarily, as sunlight reflected by snow or by 
white sand ; the other, somewhat indeterminate and hard to eval- 
uate, includes all brightness that does not in a short time cause 
the sensation of glare but which will do so if viewed for a con- 
siderable period. The line of demarcation between them will 
vary for different individuals. The following example quoted 
from Fundamentals of Illumination Design will illustrate how in- 
determinate these values of brightness are: "What these values 
represent may perhaps be more clearly understood by consid- 
ering the analogous case of looking out of a window which by 
day is a source of light for a room. Unless the room is very dark, 

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ILLUMINATION 

or the landscape very brilliant, the effect of looking out of the 
window for a moment will not be at all unpleasant, but to sit 
all day facing the window would prove extremely tiring, even if 
one were sitting at a desk or table and not paying particular 
attention to the window. This is exactly comparable to the case 
of a light-source which is not bright enough to cause an im- 
mediate sensation of glare, but too bright to be viewed con- 
tinually." 

This is a matter of considerable interest to inspectors and 
safety engineers for the reason that there are thousands of 
men and women whose entire working hours are spent at a work- 
bench; many more thousands spend part of their time there. 
Work benches are almost invariably placed parallel with and 
close to the wall. Persons working at benches so placed must 
face the window and therefore are likely to be subjected to 
low-degree glare. Eventually, vision may become impaired and 
unless remedial steps are taken the impairment may become 
permanent. Many workmen have been injured while at work in 
shops adequately and properly lighted for persons with normal 
vision, and, as no cause of a mechanical nature was apparent in 
the vicinity, accidents occurring there have been attributed to ■ 
mere personal carelessness. If all the conditions were known 
in such cases it would often be found that improper lighting con- 
ditions in some other shop had impaired the vision of the injured 
person to such an extent that hazards apparent to a normal eye 
were not apparent to an abnormal eye. Illuminating engineers 
have always strongly advocated the policy of installing ma- 
chines so that the line of sight of the workers is at right angles 
to the direction of the light that enters through the windows. 
In many of our industries there do not appear to be any serious 
operating reasons that would prevent the use of several short 
benches placed at right angles to the walls instead of the long 
benches facing them. 

Specular reflection is the cause of a great deal of improper 
illumination. Wherever shiny or polished surfaces prevail on 
the work specular reflection will be in evidence unless special 

149 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

precautions are taken to avoid it. The brightness and the harm 
from specular reflection depend, in a large measure, on the bril- 
liance of the light source. By the use of diffusing, modifying 
or reducing media the degree of reflected brightness and of harm 
is decreased. 

Another source of annoyance which may properly be classed 
as glare is that occasioned by excessive contrast. Consider a 
deep shadow falling on part of a lathe. The parts of the lathe 
on each side of the shadow will stand out clearly, while the part 
within the limits of the shadow will be indistinct and, in extreme 
cases, may not be seen at all. This is due to the fact that a 
workman in his regular working position will have part of the 
brightly-lighted sections of the lathe within his line of vision at 
all times. The iris in its protective capacity contracts to meet 
this condition and, in doing so, will not admit enough rays from 
the shadowed region to permit clear vision of that part of the 
work ; in other words, the bright parts become glaring by contrast 
with the less well-lighted part in the shadow. If there were no 
shadow, or if the entire lathe were in the shadow, there would be 
no glare, because in each case the sharp contrast would be missing. 

If an interurban trolley headlight were turned on in the day- 
time it would probably not be noticed or, if it were observed, no 
annoyance would be felt. Natural daylight would offset the rays 
from the headlight so that there would be no outstanding back- 
ground capable of furnishing extreme contrast. On a dark night 
a great deal of annoyance is experienced when facing such a 
headlight because our eyes are then adjusted to night conditions, 
and the headlight forms a decided contrast to the dark back- 
ground. This hazard is recognized in some localities and regula- 
tions are issued requiring a dimming of the headlight within 
certain sections, or when approaching automobiles that are travel- 
ing in the opposite direction. Conditions quite analogous are en- 
countered in many of our factories and workshops, especially 
among the older and unprogressive ones. In such shops de- 
pendence for illumination is placed mainly or wholly, upon small 
lamps placed close to the working points. In many cases no at- 

150 



ILLUMINATION 

tempt is made to provide reflectors and such as are supplied are 
not adapted to the conditions, or, when they become damaged 
or broken, are not replaced. A surprisingly large percentage of 
these lighting sources shine from a comparatively dark back- 
ground directly into the eyes of the workmen. The contrast be- 
tween the lights and the background is so great, especially when 
there is also a lack of protection from direct rays, that injurious 
effects are bound to follow. Another common fault of this 
system of lighting arises when a workman, by adjusting a lamp 
to suit his own convenience, directs the light-rays from it into the 
eyes of his neighbor. 

Methods of Illumination 

There are three well-defined systems of installing lighting 
units : Localized, general and a combination of these two. 

Localized Illumination 

Localized lighting is the simplest to design and for that reason 
we see it employed in places where it is manifestly out of place. 
It is characterized by the employment of low candlepower light 
sources suspended by means of drop cords, supported by flexible 
or rigid brackets or arranged to be portable. The units are 
within the control of the workers and many abuses and violations 
of good lighting principles result. The illumination provided by 
this system has a tendency to be "spotty," that is, there will be 
alternate zones, or circles, of high and low intensity, or checkered 
regions in which the intensity varies in other violent and irregular 
ways. Moreover, these locals lights, if equipped with reflectors, 
as they should be, concentrate the light in the lower zone of the 
room while the upper zone is in darkness, except for the almost 
negligible amount obtained by reflection. These two conditions 
are the cause of an appreciable percentage of accidents owing 
to the fact that the eye, accommodated to the high intensity at 
the working point, cannot adjust itself to quickly visualize ob- 
stacles or hazards in the poorly lighted zones. 

Localized lighting has a legitimate place in our industries be- 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

cause there are certain operations that cannot be performed ac- 
curately or satisfactorily unless localized lighting is provided. In 
machining and finishing the internal surface of valves and cylin- 
ders it is necessary to have light directed into the interior of the 
work and this can be done far more easily and economically by 
local lighting than by any other method. Under some circum- 
stances, when a good light is needed over small but widely sepa- 
rated areas, localized lighting is economical from a purely manu- 
facturing viewpoint; but in every such case the inspector will do 
well to scrutinize carefully the intervening darker spaces to make 
sure there is sufficient light to prevent accidents from falls or 
other causes. 

General Illumination 

General illumination is the term given to systems which pro- 
vide a fairly even intensity of illumination throughout the entire 
working area irrespective of the location of the machines, the 
character of the operations or the light-intercepting obstacles. 
Perfection is seldom attained from this system; but, by observ- 
ing the proper relation of ratio between the light source and its 
equipment and the spacing and mounting height to secure proper 
diffusion and distribution, we can closely approximate daylight 
conditions in the matter of evenness of illumination. Daylight 
conditions have sometimes been bettered by properly designed 
artificial installation but this has been possible, as a rule, because 
of failure to properly consider the various factors essential to 
good daylight illumination at the time the building was designed. 

General illumination usually permits the use of larger-sized 
and more efficient lighting units than can be employed in localized 
lighting. The advantage of the higher efficiency of the units is 
in large measure offset, however, by the greater amount of 
radiant energy, or light-flux, required to illuminate all instead 
of part of a given area evenly, as with a localized system. The 
general illumination system is used to best advantage in large, 
open workrooms with ceilings ten feet or more high and where 
the floor space is reasonably well utilized for manufacturing 

152 



ILLUMINATION 

purposes. The wiring, installation, and maintenance costs are 
low. A word of warning should be issued here against the too 
general employment of large-sized lighting units, especially in 
shops where piece-work prevails. For example, four 500-watt 
tungsten-filament lamps properly spaced, equipped, and installed, 
may provide adequate illumination for the work in hand, but if 
one of the lamps fails, 25 per cent, of the working area is without 
light, except for the little that is received from the other three 
lamps. Piece-workers fret at delay, and some, instead of waiting 
for a new lamp to be installed, will keep on risking the chance of 
injury rather than suffer the loss of wage. If, however, ten 200- 
watt lamps were used, the wiring, installation, and maintenance 
charges would be slightly higher, but the failure of one lamp, say 
through accidental breakage, would affect only 10 per cent, of the 
•working area and to a less degree. Under this method the il- 
lumination is more evenly distributed and there are a number of 
lamps in service in the immediate vicinity of the broken one; 
therefore, there is more light available near the broken lamp than 
there would be if 500-watt lamps were used. Fewer workmen are 
affected, and to a lesser degree; or, in accident insurance par- 
lance, the exposure to hazard is less both in time and in extent. 

Combined General and Localized Illumination 

As the term indicates, this is a system in which a low degree of 
general illumination from large light-sources is supplemented, 
at specified areas, by localized illumination from small light- 
sources. This system can be employed with entire satisfaction in 
large shops where a few relatively small areas require the high 
intensity provided by the local units, while the rest of the shop 
requires only a low-intensity general illumination. A large 
modern planing mill offers an excellent example of this type of 
lighting. An intensity of from one to two foot-candles of general 
illumination will adequately meet the requirements for trucking, 
sorting and piling the lumber, while the work at the planers 
may require an intensity two or three times as great. This can 
be most economically supplied by localized lighting. 

153 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

There is still another system which finds much favor at the 
present time and which, for want of a better name, is called "lo- 
calized general illumination." No attempt is made in this sys- 
tem to avoid slight variation of intensity throughout a room. In- 
stead, a deliberate effort is made to bring about variations, under 
control, as required by the processes. Let us assume that a fac- 
tory is 50 feet wide and 250 feet long and that there are five sep- 
arate processes carried on, each requiring the same area. The 
department in the first 50 feet may require two foot-candles, the 
next four, the next six, the next three, and the last one and a 
half. The range in the sizes of illuminating units available is so 
great that an even distribution of illumination at the respective 
intensities that are specified can be provided for each of these 
sections, while the gradation from one section to the adjacent 
one is not so marked as to cause annoyance. By the use of this 
system we avoid the uneconomical policy of providing a high in- 
tensity over the entire shop, when only one-fifth of the manu- 
facturing space requires it and we also do away with the neces- 
sity for providing combined general and localized lighting for 
three-fifths of the shop. It is evident from the foregoing that 
we simply isolate or group the general illumination into zones, 
according to the degree of intensity required, just as geographers 
divide the earth into zones according to degrees of temperature. 

Direct, Indirect and Semi-Indirect Lighting 

General illumination may be classified according to the methods 
by which it is produced as direct, indirect and semi-indirect. By 
direct lighting is meant the system which arranges for the light 
from an illuminant to be projected directly upon the surface to 
be illuminated, without preliminary redirection or reflection from 
walls or ceilings. In general, this system includes all methods of 
lighting in which one-half or more of the light-flux is directed to 
the lower hemisphere. It thus embraces unshaded lamps and 
lamps equipped with translucent globes, or with translucent or 
opaque reflectors, provided they direct the light downward. This 
system is the one in most common use in our industries today. 

154 



ILLUMINATION 

Indirect lighting may be described as the system by which the 
hght rays are first directed to the walls and ceiling, and by them 
redirected to the surface to be lighted. This is brought about, at 
times, by the architectural features of a room, as in cove light- 
ing; but, more generally, opaque reflectors are suspended just 
beneath the lamps, to direct the light from them upward. 

Semi-indirect lighting consists in equipping the light-sources 
with reflectors in the same manner as when using indirect light- 
ing, except that translucent reflectors are used instead of opaque 
ones. Not more than from 15 to 20 per cent of the light should 
be transmitted through the reflectors in such a system, while the 
balance is directed toward the walls and ceiling. The indirect 
and semi-indirect systems have not been employed in our indus- 
tries to any great extent, although there is a marked tendency to 
use semi-indirect lighting where the conditions are suitable, that 
is, where light-tinted walls and ceilings are available. 

Artificial Light Sources 

The more common methods of producing artificial light for in- 
dustrial purposes are by means of the electric incandescent and 
arc lamps, the open gas light, the gas-mantle lamp, the gas-arc 
lamp, and the mercury-vapor lamp. Among the sources less 
widely used are Blau gas, acetylene gas, and the quartz mercury- 
vapor lamp. In all of these, with the exception of the quartz 
lamp, a wide range of size is available, either through a combina- 
tion of a given size or because of a range of sizes in a given type. 

Electric Incandescent Lamps 

The term "electric incandescent lamp" embraces a wide range 
of lighting units, both as to type and as to size, so that greater 
freedom of choice is possible with this form of light-source than 
with any other. Carbon-filament lamps, although inefficient from 
an operating standpoint, are still used, especially in places where 
exceptionally rough usage is likely to be encountered. Since 
the demand for these lamps is limited they are now manu- 
factured in only a few sizes (20 to 60 watts) ranging in 

155 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

efficiency from 4.0 to 2.5 watts per horizontal candle-power. 

The development of the tungsten-filament lamp (more gener- 
ally known under the trade name, "Mazda"), has placed in the 
hands of the illuminating engineer an illuminant of high efficiency 
and available in a wide range of sizes. It therefore lends itself 
admirably to many classes of industrial lighting, especially since 
it meets two important factors necessary for successful lighting; 
namely, economy in operation and flexibilty in installation. 

The Mazda lamp is divided into two classes : ( i ) the vacuum 
or "Mazda B," and (2) the gas-filled or "Mazda C" lamps. The 
vacuum type is the more efficient in sizes up to and including 60 
watts. Beginning with the 75-watt size the gas-filled type is to be 
preferred. The two types together provide 15 different sizes 
ranging from 10 watts to 1000 watts, the efficiency range being 
from one watt per horizontal candle-power to one-half a watt per 
horizontal candle-power, or, by the more correct method of stating 
light-efficiency, from 1.67 to 0.70 watts per spherical candle- 
power. This wide range in sizes is available for circuits of 105 
to 125 volts. For 220 to 250-volt circuits 11 different sizes are 
available with only very slight variation in efficiencies. There 
are many other types of Mazda lamps such as round bulbs, tubu- 
lar bulbs, sign-lighting, stereopticon, flood-lighting, train-lighting, 
headlight, and street-lighting lamps. These lamps, however, as 
their names indicate, are made for special purposes and seldom 
are encountered in industrial lightng. 

Electric Arc Lamps 

There are many different forms of electric arc lamps, but they 
may be included under (i) open and enclosed carbon-electrode 
lamps, (2) open and enclosed flaming carbon-electrode lamps, and 
(3) the magnetite arc lamp. Electric arc lamps are gradually 
being superseded for interior industrial lighting by the larger- 
sized electric incandescent and gas incandescent lamps and the 
mercury-vapor lamp. For yard and street lighting, however, 
there is still a field for arc lamps and a considerable number of 
them in use. 

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ILLUMINATION 

Illumination by Gas 

The open or fish-tail burner was the first form in which gas 
was used as an illuminant. It has no justification in modern 
practice, either from the standpoint of good Hghting or from that 
of economical utilization. Its efficiency is low and the light has 
a tendency to flicker, especially in light currents of air. In spite 
of these bad features there are still literally millions of these so- 
called tip-burners in service in residential and industrial lighting. 
The inspector can serve the organization he represents, and the 
factory owner as well, by persuading the latter to take advantage 
of the progress made in gas lighting by installing modern acces- 
sories in connection with his gas-piping system. 

The newer method of employing gas as an illuminant is by 
means of the incandescent system. What the tungsten filament 
is to the electric incandescent lamp the gas mantle is to the gas 
incandescent lamp. The invention of the mantle made it possible 
to eflfect a saving of at least 30 per cent, in the quantity of gas 
used as compared with the fish-tail burner and, at the same time, 
to realize an even greater increase in the amount of light emitted. 
The gas-mantle lamp can be equipped with glass or metal reflec- 
tors, as well as the electric lamp and by using a combination of 
three, four, or five gas-mantle burners, surrounded by an enclos- 
ing globe and provided with a suitable reflector and housing, we 
have the "gas-arc" lamp, corresponding in light-giving capacity 
to the larger sized Mazda lamps. Gas units of this kind consume 
approximately from 3 to 18 cubic feet of gas per hour, according 
to the number and size of the burners. Gas lighting does not 
permit portable local lighting nor can workmen adjust local gas 
lamps with the same freedom and facility that characterize elec- 
tric lamps. Judged by past experience this cannot be regarded 
as a wholly unmixed evil. Gas lighting is, of course, out of the 
question in certain industries where the open flame or the incan- 
descent mantle would be a source of danger from fire or ex- 
plosion. In some cases, the danger from fire or explosion is so 
great that even when incandescent electric lamps are used they 

157 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

should be surrounded by stout, vapor-proof globes to prevent the 
ignition of inflammable vapor or dust in case the bulbs of the 
lamps should break. 

Mercury Vapor Lamps 

Of the mercury vapor lamps only one, the low-pressure, glass- 
tube lamp manufactured by the Cooper-Hewitt Company has 
found extensive favor. This lamp is made in two sizes for alter- 
nating current circuits, the ratings being 210 and 380 watts, re- 
spectively. Since every Cooper-Hewitt lamp is equipped with 
a shallow trough reflector, practically all the light is directed to 
the lower hemisphere and the efficiency on this basis approxi- 
mates one-half watt per mean lower hemispherical candle-power. 
There are three sizes for operation in series on direct current 
circuits, rated respectively at 192 watts, 220 watts and 385 watts, 
the efficiency being the same as for the alternating current lamps, 
except in the small sizes. 

Of all commercial illuminants the Cooper-Hewitt mercury- 
vapor lamp is most distinguished by its color characteristic, at 
once an advantage and a disadvantage. Since there are no red 
rays in the spectrum of the Cooper-Hewitt lamp the blue-green 
color predominates, so that certain colors, such as red and yel- 
low, present a false appearance, while other colors are strongly 
emphasized. Particularly distressing to most persons is the pe- 
culiar appearance that the human face and hands present under 
this light. There is nothing in this, so far as I know, that is 
harmful, the effect on the average person being purely psycholog- 
ical ; but the effect is there and must be recognized and reckoned 
with. On the other hand, the color of the light from the Cooper- 
Hewitt lamp is in harmony with the surrounding to which the 
eye was accustomed during the ages of the evolution of men ; that 
is, the natural blue of the sky and the green of the foliage. It is 
not unreasonable to suppose that the margin between the quick 
and the dead among prehistoric men was often measured by the 
ability of each man to see, quickly and clearly, the dangers before 
him. It is certain, at all events, that greater visual acuity may 

158 



ILLUMINATION 

be had, especially in metal works, under the light of the Cooper- 
Hewitt lamp than under that of any other artificial illuminant. 

Reflectors 

A ray of light, when traveling in a uniform medium, will pro- 
ceed along a straight line until it is gradually lost by absorption 
or meets with material interference. Gradual absorption is best 
illustrated by the effort of light rays to penetrate a smoky, dusty, 
or misty atmosphere. Material interference follows when a light 
ray strikes any solid body. We have already seen that a light 
ray impinging on a surface may pass through the surface with, 
or without, change in direction, or may be transformed into an- 
other form of energy, usually heat, or may have its direction 
changed by reflection or by diffusion. All these factors must be 
considered, as well as the purpose to be served, when choosing 
reflector equipment for light sources. 

Reflectors may be classified according to the material from 
which they are made, according to their shape and to the finish 
of the reflecting surface. Glass of varying shades of color and 
of composition, or opaque substances, usually steel, are employed 
in the manufacture of reflectors. Glass reflectors are largely 
employed in residential, commercial and mercantile lighting, but 
in connection with industrial lighting they are used only to a 
limited extent. The glass reflector can be employed with ex- 
cellent results for industrial lighting, however, and some plants 
that have used them are well pleased with their results and ex- 
perience, notwithstanding the fact that the chance of accidental 
breakage is greater with the glass reflector than with the metallic 
one. Moreover, dust which collects on the top of a metal reflec- 
tor in no way interferes with the functioning of the reflector, 
but the same cannot always be said of some of the glass reflectors. 
In my own opinion a dense glass reflector, approximating the 
metal reflector in strength and permitting a certain percentage 
of the light to pass into the upper hemisphere, is greatly to be 
preferred to steel. 

The shape of a reflector has an important bearing on the 

159 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

adequacy and usefulness of the resultant illumination. Although 
sufficient light for a given class of work may be afforded by the 
lamps, the illumination may prove unsatisfactory, either because 
of a lack of reflectors or because reflectors of a wrong type are 
employed. The primary purposes of a reflector are to direct the 
maximum amount of light upon the working plane and to protect 
the eye from injury due to light radiation. In order to obtain 
satisfactory results several shapes of reflectors have been de- 
signed to meet the varying conditions depending upon building 
construction, machine layout, and other features of the plant. 
The more important may be placed in two classes: the bowl 
type and the dome type. 

Bowl-Type Reflectors 

The bowl-type reflector approaches the parabola in shape and is 
characterized by its ability to concentrate the light rays in a re- 
stricted area. It is to be recommended primarily in connection 
with localized lighting and in general lighting where the ceiling 
height is so low that direct light-rays would reach the eye if 
shallow reflectors were used. This indicates the advisability of 
using bowl-type reflectors in rooms having ceiling heights in the 
neighborhood of lo feet. Since the light will be concentrated 
a close spacing of small-sized lamps, lOO watts or less, will give 
the best results. 

Dome-Type Reflectors 

The dome-type reflector is much flatter in construction and is 
used primarily in installations for general illumination. With 
adequate mounting heights of 12 feet or more, it is practicable 
to use larger light sources and a wider spacing of units by em- 
ploying the dome-type reflector, than is possible with larger ceil- 
ing heights. The distribution of light with the dome-type re- 
flector covers a wider area than can be realized with the bowl- 
type and the utilization- factor of the dome reflector is also ap- 
preciably higher. It is, of course, important to select the size 
of lamp and reflector correctly and with due reference to the 

160 



ILLUMINATION 

mounting height. For ceihngs ii to 14 feet high lOO-watt to 300- 
watt lamps may be used, and the larger sizes for higher ceihngs. 
From a safety standpoint the essential feature in the choice of 
lamps and reflectors is to see that direct light-rays are screened 
from the line of vision. 

Special Reflectors 

Special reflectors for special purposes are available, but we 
cannot go into this phase of the subject in detail. It may be 
well to direct attention to the angle-type reflector, designed to 
direct the light outward and downward, when the unit is at- 
tached to the side or end walls of the room. Angle reflectors 
are often useful when overhead cranes or smoky conditions pre- 
vent an overhead installation of the lighting system. It is also 
well to note that excellent reflectors may be had for local lights, 
a fact which appears to have escaped the attention of a large 
number of factory executives. 

Reflector Surfaces 

The reflecting surfaces of reflectors have either a polished or 
a matt finish. The porcelain-enamel metal reflector and the 
smooth glass reflector typify the first class, while the aluminum- 
finished metal reflector and the sand-blasted or acid-etched glass 
reflector are examples of the second class. The porcelain-enamel 
reflector is more easily cleaned than the matt-finished reflector 
and retains its reflecting efficiency longer. The light from the 
enameled reflector is more diffuse than that from the aluminum- 
finished reflector. Regular reflection characterizes the alumin- 
ized reflector and when this type of reflector is used there is a 
greater likelihood of special reflection, either from the reflector 
itself or from the surface to be lighted. 

Arrangement of Lighting Units 

Very little can be said regarding the arrangement of lighting 
units unless a specific set of conditions is assumed. Lamp and 
reflector manufacturing companies have issued catalogues and 

161 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

tables showing the intensities required for various classes of work 
and describing methods of determining the size and type of 
lamps and reflectors, as well as spacing and mounting heights. 
These are available for the asking and, provided one understands 
the fundamentals of illuminating engineering, a satisfactory in- 
stallation can easily be devised by employing them. It is highly 
important for an inspector to train himself to judge of the ade- 
quacy or inadequacy of the lighting in the shops with which he 
has to deal. If he finds the conditions markedly unsatisfactory 
the management should be advised to seek the services of light- 
ing experts. 

The Economic Loss Due to Improper Lighting 

That there is need of more careful inspection of industrial 
lighting installation has been completely demonstrated by past 
investigations. A paper presented before the Illuminating En- 
gineering Society in October 191 8, showed that the equivalent 
of the services of over 100,000 workers for a whole year were 
lost, annually, on account of inadequate or improper lighting. 
In this day of high wages such a body of workers could earn 
approximately $150,000,000 a year, a sum that would pay our 
entire annual industrial lighting bill. The wage-earners lose this 
sum, except that part, less than half, paid through compensa- 
tion insurance, while the profits on the product of their labor 
are lost by the employer. This vast sum is lost each year be- 
cause industrial executives, either through ignorance or through 
indifference, fail to spend a small fraction of it in correcting the 
faulty lighting equipment in their plants. 

Significance of Industrial Lighting Codes 

It may be well to mention the industrial Hghting codes that 
have already been adopted, or which are about to be adopted in 
several States. You may recall that the Code of Lighting for 
Factories, Mills, and Other Workplaces, drawn up by the Illumi- 
nating Engineering Society's Committee on Lighting Legislation, 
headed by Mr. L. B. Marks, and its former Committee on Fac- 

162 



ILLUMINATION 

tory Lighting, headed by Professor C. E. Clewell, has served as 
a basis for all the State and Federal codes thus far drafted. The 
significance of these codes to inspectors may be gathered from 
the introduction of a paper presented by Mr. G. H. Stickney, 
Past President of the Illuminating Engineering Society, before a 
joint meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
and the Illuminating Engineering Society ftom which the fol- 
lowing is quoted: "The industrial lighting codes are expres- 
sions of the 'Safety First' movement in terms of legal regula- 
tions, directed to the lighting of factories. The prime function 
of these codes is the safeguarding of Hfe, limb, and vision of in- 
dustrial workers. No argument should be necessary to enlist the 
support of all good citizens in such a humanitarian effort." 
Every man who is called upon to supervise the welfare of work- 
ers should have a copy of one of these codes. 

Common Defects of Illumination 

The most marked and notable defect of industrial lighting at 
the present time is the lack of reflector equipment on light sources 
or the use of makeshift, or misfit reflectors. We know that direct 
light-radiation causes the iris to contract, thus placing it under 
tension, and that at the same time the sensitivity of the retina 
is gradually reduced, thus requiring greater stimulation by means 
of more light rays to produce the same visual perception. The 
high-efficiency light sources in common use to-day will bring 
about just these conditions unless reflecting or diffusing media 
are employed. In general illumination with the units hung high, 
an unshaded light source, or one having a reflector or shallow 
that it fails to conceal the lamp filament or mantle, may not be 
severely irritating or harmful, because it is suspended well above 
the level of the eye, and, besides, the greater part of our indus- 
trial work requires the eyes to be turned downward. It is, 
nevertheless, highly desirable to have all lamps, no matter where 
they are installed, equipped with protective reflectors. 

Of far greater importance is the very common use of local 
lights without reflectors, a practice which is to be found in al- 

163 

\ , 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

most every factory in the country. A workman with an un- 
shaded lamp suspended close to his work is continually subjected 
to direct light- radiation. Very often the light rays strike the eye 
from below, a direction in which the anatomy of the eye affords 
distinctly less protection. Although the amount of light given 
off by a local lamp is not so great as that from a large lamp used 
for general illumination purposes the brilliance or brightness in 
many cases is practically the same. In addition to this the work- 
man's eyes are almost invariably much closer to the local light 
than to the larger unit used in general illumination. Any one 
can easily demonstrate the inconvenience and irritation experi- 
enced under such lighting conditions by attempting to shave, 
after first suspending an unshaded lamp just below the level 
of the eye, and immediately in front of the shaving mirror. It 
is advisable, however, to take out accident insurance before the 
experiment is made. 

An inspector can hardly be said to have fulfilled his complete 
duty if an inspection discloses unshaded lamps in a factory or 
shop and he fails to insistently recommend a correction of the 
fault. He may not know the precise type of reflector best suited 
to meet the conditions but he can at least describe it in a general 
way. Any reflector is better than no reflector, so long as it 
screens the direct light rays from the eyes. 

Another point well worth the inspector's attention is the light- 
ing of stairways, passageways and storage spaces. The lighting 
of these places is often very poor indeed, nothwithstanding the 
fact that all the workers must use the stairs and passageways 
at least twice a day and, in some cases, hundreds of times. Stor- 
age spaces and infrequently used passageways need not be lighted 
at all times but adequate lighting and switching facilities should 
be installed in every place of this sort, so that sufficient light 
can be had when needed. 

From what has already been said it is evident that glare may 
be a contributing cause of accidents. Human nature, at least 
the American brand, is prone to select articles having a bright 
and pleasing finish. Given two articles of equal merit, one hav- 

164 



ILLUMINATION 

ing a polished finish and the other being dull, the average person 
will choose the bright one. As a matter of fact, we are not 
always given the privilege of choosing because the manufacturer, 
realizing that the bright finish is an aid to selling, will see that 
this attractive feature is present in his product. There are in- 
stances of glaring reflection in many shops and wherever even a 
slight irritation is found from this cause a corrective change in 
the lighting arrangements should be provided. 

Opportunities for the Factory Inspector 

There is probably no body of men who have greater oppor- 
tunity for raising the standard of our industrial lighting than the 
Federal, State and insurance inspectors, and there are few work- 
places in the country that escape one or more inspections by them 
each year. The consulting engineer and the lighting specialist 
of manufacturing and public utility concerns must interest the 
executives before they can make any progress. Even then the 
executive is under no obligation to follow the expert recom- 
mendations. These experts must solicit admission to the work- 
places while the Federal, State, or insurance, inspector has be- 
hind him either the power given by law, or certain contractual 
obligations, so that a mere presentation of his card gains him 
ready admission to a plant. The executive, moreover, will proba- 
bly give favorable consideration to the inspector's report be- 
cause he is aware that it is to his interest to comply with any 
recommendation that the inspector is likely to make. With these 
advantages, plus an understanding of the fundamentals of good 
lighting, an inspector can be a potent influence in bettering our 
industrial lighting with a resulting reduction in the number of 
our industrial accidents. 

[For many helpful suggestions and criticisms and the loan of lantern 
slides used in this lecture, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. 
G. H. Stickney and Mr. H. E. Mahan of the General Electric Company; 
to Mr. W. A, D. Evans of the Cooper-Hewitt Company, and to Mr. J. P. 
Conroy of the General Gas Light Company.] 

165 



IX. 

NATURE'S FORCES FOR AND AGAINST 
WORKMEN 

By Chester C. Rausch, Assistant Director, Safety Institute 

of America 

I HAVE been impressed more and more by the fact that so 
many of the undertakings in industrial life started with good 
intention and with every promise of success, have been found 
toi be defective or have failed. The defects and failures have 
caused disaster, sometimes followed by serious accident and by 
death to individuals. Investigation following such disaster has 
shown that the trouble has come about because in the planning 
and design of the undertaking too little recognition had been 
given to the fundamental laws of Nature that work inevitably 
and at all times, regardless of the persons or the materials that 
may be employed. 

One cannot tamper with natural laws or work contrary to 
them, and escape the inevitable action and the result that follow. 
It makes no difference whether the law is one affecting the struc- 
ture of the physical body or the materials or apparatus with 
which one works. Ignorance of these laws or the wilful neglect 
of them has made necessary laws and regulations for safeguard- 
ing the community as a whole and the creation of industrial com- 
missions, engineers and inspectors and that vast number of people 
employed to make the existence of other people safe. 

Most, if not all, of the work done to make conditions safe, 
could be performed so much better if it was considered earlier 
while the future conditions that are to surround the operations 
are being studied and planned for, than it ever can be after the 

i66 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

work has been completed and the lack of protection detected as a 
result of some catastrophe, or by the observation of a skilled and 
trained observer. During my own experience I have been amazed 
to see what a number of simple natural laws that should be a 
part of the common education of every individual for his own 
comfort and protection are unknown even by persons having 
work to do that is concerned, either directly or indirectly, with 
the safety and health of other persons. Some of the unusual 
actions that occur under laws that are well recognized, as well as 
some of the more important laws commonly overlooked, are taken 
up in this paper. 

The Element of Fire as Servant or Destroyer 

Fire may be man's servant, when its action is controlled within 
definite limits, or his enemy, when it is free to consume as it will. 
Combustion, or as we more commonly term it "fire," is a rapid 
chemical action and is no different in its ultimate effects than 
many other chemical actions that take place through an infinitely 
greater length of time. The rusting of iron is a combustion just 
as much as the burning of oil is combustion. The only difference 
is in the materials consumed and the length of time taken for 
the process. 

Fire is used in an infinite number of ways in nearly every art 
that man performs. Long study and abundant experience have 
taught us how to control fire and to protect ourselves from the 
infinite number of hazards it introduces. Strange as it may seem, 
however, some of the very devices that are used to protect man 
from the ravages of fire have, in themselves, hazards which may 
destroy life unless they are properly recognized and guarded 
against. 

Hazards in Methods of Combatting Fire 

The first and most natural instinct is for a person to throw 
water upon a fire to extinguish it; but the nature of the burning 
subsfance should be considered before this is done. Water thrown 

167 

12 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

upon burning oil, gasoline or similar substances that float upon 
it causes them to spread themselves over a much greater area 
where they are exposed to more air and burn more readily. The 
only successful way to combat such fires with water is to apply 
such an overwhelming abundance to the burning substance that 
the flames are extinguished by being smothered or by a cooling 
of the burning substance to a point where it can no longer volati- 
lize and burn. Some chemicals are dangerous in the presence of 
water. It is well known that a small quantity of water thrown 
upon sulphuric acid instantly causes a chemical action violent 
enough to be classed as an explosion. Lime, when wet, begins a 
chemical action that evolves great heat; heat sufficient to ignite 
woodwork or other inflammable material. Water is used to ex- 
tinguish fires in buildings in which occasionally are stored ma- 
terials that swell tremendously when wet, resulting in the destruc- 
tion of the building by bursting out its walls. Water may also 
fill compartments in which it is used to extinguish fire and by its 
weight and pressure cause them to collapse or burst. These are 
only a few of the many ways in which water — the commonest 
and most frequently used extinguishing substance — may cause 
disaster. 

There are many forms of fire extinguishers, each of which pre- 
sents its own particular hazards. One of the commonest forms 
is the so-called "acid-soda" extinguisher. They operate upon the 
principle that sulphuric acid acting upon a solution of sodium car- 
bonate liberates carbon dioxide gas in sufficient volume to create 
a pressure within the receptacle and to expel its contents' with 
violence enough to project them into a fire. These extinguishers 
are usually composed of small copper tanks, holding from three 
to five gallons. The soda is in solution in water and in the top 
of the extinguisher is a bottle of acid which is brought into con- 
tact with the solution when the extinguisher is inverted for use. 
Pressure is created immediately and unless relieved through the 
short hose attached, may mount to as much as 300 pounds to the 
square inch, a pressure sufficient to burst any but extinguishers 
constructed in a proper manner. 

168 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

Extinguishers are made of copper and though tin Uned fre- 
quently corrode as a result of the failure to wash them free of 
acid after use, or to the fact that various salts are sometimes 
added to the soda solution to keep it from freezing during cold 
weather. The salt solution, unless thoroughly washed out, or 
if left in the extinguisher for a long time, causes corrosion and 
weakening so that when used the extinguisher may burst. Cal- 
cium chloride should be used instead of salt because it does not 
"creep." There is also a small length of rubber hose attached 
to the extinguisher to direct the play of the stream that issues. 
If this hose is old or rotten it may burst, and in either case the 
person carrying the extinguisher is likely to be covered with acid 
and may be severely injured by flying pieces of the equipment. 
In addition to this hazard the effectiveness of this type of ex- 
tinguisher is greatly reduced by the introduction of salt to pre- 
vent freezing and it may even fail to create pressure where the 
quantities of salt are excessive and the temperatures very low. 

It is well known that sulphuric acid will absorb water vapor 
wherever it has access to it. In poorly designed extinguishers 
this absorption may take place to such an extent that the acid 
bottle overflows and gradually acts upon the soda solution or 
even upon the walls of the extinguisher, causing corrosion. When 
this takes place there is also a tendency for a chemical action 
on the soda to occur so that vapor issues from the nozzle, seri- 
ously corroding or entirely stopping it. If the extinguisher is 
used when this has taken place the hose, or the extinguisher it- 
self, may burst. 

Another common form of fire protection is the so-called stand- 
pipe, or riser, to which are attached reels or racks of fire hose 
located in various parts of a building. These stand-pipes are 
connected to a gravity tank or to city mains to give pressure for 
playing. In many cases the hose connected with these stand- 
pipes has remained in the racks so long that it will stand little, 
if any, pressure and the hose becomes useless in an emergency. 
Cases are on record where valves had been closed or tanks and 
mains were empty, so that there was no water available in the 

169 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

stand-pipe ! Even the valve to which hose is connected at the 
stand-pipe has been so badly corroded that it could not be opened. 

A form of extinguisher that has met with considerable favor 
as a result of its wide distribution, following active and persistent 
advertising, is the so-called "carbon-tetrachloride" extinguisher. 
These extinguishers depend for their effectiveness upon covering 
burning substances with a blanket of inflammable gas composed 
of carbon-tetrachloride vapor. This tetrachloride, which is highly- 
volatile, is usually carried in small brass containers of one or two 
quarts capacity and is forced from a small nozzle in the base 
thereof by means of a hand pump which either creates an air 
pressure within the container or pumps the liquid directly. Tetra- 
chloride will stand fairly low temperatures without freezing and 
will not conduct electricity, even at high voltages, so that it is 
of value in places that are not easily heated, upon unheated out- 
door conveyances and in places where electrical apparatus is in 
use. These extinguishers, however, are not effective on large fires 
or fires that are burning in open spaces or in strong drafts. 
Where the fire is incipient, slow burning or in a confined space, 
this type is reasonably effective. 

In order that the odor of the tetrachloride may be less ob- 
noxious it is common to add nitro-benzol ; and chloroform is 
mixed with the tetrachloride to lower its freezing point. Unless 
the tetrachloride, the chloroform and the nitro-benzol are rela- 
tively pure there is a tendency for them to corrode the interior 
pump and valve mechanism so that they become inoperative and 
the extinguisher useless. The particular hazard connected with 
this type of extinguisher is evident, when it is used in confined 
compartments. The evaporating tetrachloride and chloroform 
immediately asphyxiate persons who breathe their fumes and 
when the tetrachloride is played in quantity upon smouldering or 
excessively hot material there is a tendency for chlorine and 
other gases to be liberated. These affect the respiratory passages, 
frequently inducing bronchial or lobar pneumonia. A number of 
such cases are on record ; one of particular interest is as follows : 

A workman and a helper were sent into one of the compart- 

170 




Foamite Fire Extinguisher Co. 

PoAM Type Fire Extinguisher Burying Flame and Material Under a 
Non-inflammable Blanket of Foam 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

merits of a submarine to do electrical welding. They had been 
instructed, as had all other men in this shop, to do neither electric 
or oxy-acetylene welding without a tetrachloride extinguisher 
near. During the welding operation the workman's clothing 
caught fire from sparks and the helper used the extinguisher to 
put out the flame. Both men were almost immediately overcome. 
They were subsequently removed by cutting a hole through the 
floor of the submarine, and within two days both men died from 
pneumonia. The burns, though of first, second and third degree, 
were not considered sufficient in extent to have caused death. 

The "Foam" Type of Fire Extinguisher 

Another type of extinguisher rapidly gaining favor is the so- 
called "foam" type, which depends for its effectiveness upon 
the smothering action of a blanket of gas held over the burning 
substances by the bubbles of a viscous and frothy mixture. A 
solution of licorice, acted upon by certain chemicals, produces 
the desired foam. This type was originally developed for fight- 
ing fires in oil storage tanks. Large plants were installed for 
pumping the foaming solution over the surface of burning oil. 
The method was found so effective that subsequently a small port- 
able type was developed for general use on all fires and has been 
found highly satisfactory wherever used. There are few hazards 
in the operation of this type of extinguisher, since the action 
of the relatively harmless chemicals upon the licorice solution is 
less violent than in the case of the acid-soda extinguisher. 

Other and older types of portable extinguishers are being rap- 
idly supplanted by the types just described. The old hand gren- 
ades, containing solutions or powders, depended upon the heat 
of the fire to start an action in these chemicals such that a large 
amount of non-inflammable gas was created at the base of the 
fire, tending to smother it. Their small size and their uncertainty 
in operation, as well as the rapid dissemination of the gas by the 
upward rush of heated air induced by the burning material, has 
resulted practically in their elimination. 

171 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

Smoke Hazards 

One of the greatest hazards in connection with fires is smoke. 
Smoke is the result of a chemical process in which gases are set 
free. The volume, pungency- and asphyxiating effect of these 
gases depend upon the nature of the burning material from which 
the smoke issues, the amount of air that can reach the burning 
material and the heat created. When the air supply that reaches 
a burning fire is small there is usually a much greater amount 
of smoke, and while it may not be any more dangerous in its 
asphyxiating effect, it usually creates more discomfort by its 
sense of suffocation. 

Smoke produces asphyxiation by the elimination of oxygen- 
bearing air. It frequently happens that the amount of oxygen 
in any given place is practically all used in supporting combustion 
so that the person entering such a place is deprived of a sufficient 
amount of oxygen to sustain consciousness, or life. If, in addi- 
tion, various chemical gases are given off as a result of the com- 
bustion, the respiratory passages and the eyes may be so severely 
effected that unconsciousness results. Since smoke is created by 
heat, it usually rises to the upper part of any enclosure and ac- 
counts for the fact that people are instructed, when escaping 
through smoke-filled places, to keep as near the floor as possible, 
where the air may be more respirable. 

Chemical Hazards 

Fires in which chemicals are involved are extremely hazardous 
because of the possibility of explosion and the emission of pow- 
erful asphyxiating gases. Certain materials may ignite them- 
selves as a result of chemical action of their various constituents 
or from being overheated. Celluloid fires have occurred from 
this cause and, when once started, cannot be extinguished by ordi- 
nary methods because the material itself creates sufficient oxygen 
to support the combustion. Fires that ignite and burn by the 
chemical action of air upon various materials may create enough 
gas to smother themselves, in some cases, or to support com- 

172 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

bustion, in others. It is evident that any material that is handled 
should have its particular properties for producing or sustaining 
fire well recognized and guarded against. 

Oils, gasoline and other inflammable and volatile liquids of 
this sort require special protection and the vapors of many of 
them, being highly explosive when mixed with a given propor- 
tion of air, require them to be stored under strict supervision and 
their use only under proper guidance. 

Hazards Due to Static Electricity 

Static electricity is a phenomenon that causes small electric 
discharges, or sparks, to pass from one body to another, or from 
certain bodies to the earth. Certain objects so act upon each 
other that electricity is piled up on their surfaces until the re- 
sistance of the air, or of the objects themselves, is not sufficient 
to keep the electricity from passing from one body to another or 
from these bodies to the earth. The cases where this may hap- 
pen are many, and fires have been started as a result of such 
static discharges. A knowledge of the various circumstances that 
create such a condition will prevent many serious fires. Gasoline, 
for example, if poured from one metal container to another by 
a person standing on a reasonably well insulated surface, even 
if the two containers have no metal connection, will discharge a 
static spark and ignite the gasoline when the containers are 
brought together. Celluloid in passing through a moving-picture 
machine m.ay create sparks. 

Certain fabrics while passing through rolls during parts of 
the process to which they are subjected, may create static elec- 
tricity and ignite themselves, or gases, dusts and inflammable 
vapors that may be present near them. Many fires not traceable 
to any other source have been found, after careful analysis, to 
have resulted from the ignition of inflammable material from 
a static spark. Static sparks may be easily overcome by 
the use of "wipers" of various types, composed of light chains, 
metal tinsel, or wires, placed in contact with the surface upon 

173 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

which the static electricity is generated and connected to earth. 
Discharges of static electricity, or even high-tension electrical 
discharges which have virtually the same properties as static 
electrical discharges, are used in certain types of apparatus to 
purify the air. It is a well-known fact that electrical discharges 
of this nature passing through air tend to create ozone, one of 
the most effective purifiers of the atmosphere. 

Explosive Liquids and Compounds 

Fuel oils, gasolines, naphthas, alcohols and other materials of 
this sort used as solvents, as carriers for pigments, for com- 
bustion in power engines or for illuminants, are hazardous when 
in a volatile state, and, when heated, if the vapor rising from 
them is mixed with air, become explosive. Soft coal contains 
inflammable oils and compounds which sometimes ignite from the 
spontaneous combustion that results from the action of air on 
these constituents, particularly when the coal is stored in large 
piles. Many fires have resulted with the loss of much property, 
and occasionally of lives, from conditions of this sort. 

Wind, Its Properties and Hazards 

Wind is man's friend. It brings comfort to his heated body 
and rain to water the land in which he lives. It serves also to 
move ships and frequently assists in the ventilation of buildings 
that otherwise would be uninhabitable. One property of winds 
that causes them to do harm is due to the fact that as their 
velocity grows their lifting power tremendously increases, more 
than three times as rapidly. This accounts for the disastrous re- 
sults that follow in the wake of high gales and tornadoes. This 
destructive effect is also in direct proportion to the area exposed 
to the wind and the shape and position of any surface upon which 
the wind blows or impinges. No large, unstayed surfaces or un- 
secured parts of structures should be permitted. The force of 
the wind blowing upon the side of a large building, or even upon 
large doors, is sufficient to destroy them unless they are designed 

174 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

to withstand this force or are secured against its effects. Plate 
glass windows have been blown in by the force of the wind ; doors, 
blinds and shutters torn from their hinges; lumber piles torn 
apart ; open sheds blown down and even trolley cars and railroad 
coaches blown from their tracks. Large open buildings, such as 
train sheds, ice houses and erecting shops have tremendous force 
exerted on them by high winds tending to lift the roofs from 
them. 

The amount of moisture contained in air is dependent upon its 
temperature and the quantity is greater at higher temperatures. 
This is why the air in summer is heavily laden with moisture and 
in winter is extremely dry. It is not an uncommon sight on a 
snapping cold morning to see the moisture remaining in the air 
being precipitated in the form of fine, white frost. This property 
of air causes the swelling of material in summer and its drying 
and shrinkage in the winter. Material frequently rots and moulds 
and becomes weakened during the summer months and dries out 
to such an extent that it becomes brittle in the winter. The 
tendency of windows and doors to stick and materials to rust or 
mould, in warm, moist weather, has been the cause of a variety 
of accidents. 

Foggy Atmospheres 

Another difficulty caused by moisture in the air is its tendency 
to create fogs. A fog is nothing more than visible moisture that 
has been precipitated in the air by a lowering of the temperature. 
Fog is created naturally when warm, moist air comes in contact 
with a stratum or current of cold air and the accidents that it 
causes on sea and land by obscuring vision are well known. In 
a shop where steam is present, or where the moisture from the 
breath of many individuals collects, the air may be clear enough 
for vision ; but it is not uncommon to see this vapor become visible 
when a door or window is opened to the cold outside air. Ap- 
parently, large volumes of fog blow into the room. This phenome- 
non is nothing more than a condensation of the moisture already 
in the air by the colder air from outside. This principle is fre- 

175 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

quently used to remove moisture from rooms in which it is 
obnoxious, and from drying chambers, by passing the air through 
fans and over coils which are kept cool, either by the circulation 
of water or of a refrigerating material. When this system is 
used in dehydrating materials it greatly reduces the volume of 
air that must be heated in order to absorb moisture from the 
material being dehydrated. This tendency for air to fog causes 
considerable annoyance in the air locks used in pneumatic caisson 
work. When air is increased in pressure it must be reduced in 
volume. To do this work heat is required and this heat appears 
in the form of an increase in the temperature of the air com- 
pressed. On the other hand, when the pressure of air is reduced 
the volume increases. Heat is required to do this work also and 
the necessary heat is taken from that already stored in the air by 
the work of compression. As a result, when pressure is increased 
in an air lock, the temperature rises and when reduced it falls. 
The rise of temperature causes no visible moisture to appear since 
the air readily absorbs it, though if the air lock is occupied for any 
length of time the moisture from the breath of the individuals 
occupying it may become visible. When the air pressure in the 
lock is reduced and the temperature falls, this moisture becomes 
visible as a dense fog. 

This tendency for air to drop in temperature when its pressure 
is reduced causes machinery driven by compressed air to drop 
in temperature so that it frequently becomes covered with frost 
and, in the winter time, with the temperature already low, it is 
sometimes necessary to pre-heat the air to avoid this condition. 
This pre-heating is not a disadvantage because it also expands 
the air to greater volume and allows more work to be done in 
direct proportion to the amount of pre-heating that is furnished. 

Compressed Air Hazards 

When air under pressure issues from an orifice it has tre- 
mendous velocity, so that any particles of dust, chips or moisture 
passing out with the air, even when they are small, may inflict 

176 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

serious injury. Bursting hose thrashes about violently and may 
strike people and the sudden disconnection of fittings or the care- 
less opening of a valve may blow dust and dirt into the eyes and 
faces of people standing nearby. For this reason, precaution 
should be taken to make secure all hose connectons. 

A pernicious prank which has resulted in authenticated cases 
of injury and death of workmen is that of pointing an air-hose 
or nozzle by one workman at another. Ear drums have been 
fractured, eyes blown out, and, in cases where the hose has been 
directed toward the rectum, men have been disemboweled by the 
increased pressure in the abdominal cavity and have died after 
horrible suffering. Such practices are nothing short of criminal 
and the strictest rules should be enforced regarding the use of 
apparatus in this fashion. Workmen frequently use a blast of 
air to blow scale, chips and dirt out of their way on work which 
they are performing. This should always be done with great 
caution and men performing such work should at least wear 
goggles for protection. The velocity imparted to such material 
may cause it to rebound with sufficient force to inflict injury. 

The cylinders on the compression end of air compressors be- 
come heated as a result of the energy used in compressing the 
air and are, therefore, water-cooled. If for any reason the cool- 
ing system fails, the temperature of the air that is passed from 
the cylinder into the receiving tank may be very high. The lubri- 
cating oil used in the cylinders sometimes volatilizes under in- 
creased temperature and is passed into the receiving tank as a 
vapor where, if it is mixed with the proper proportion of air 
and the incoming air still continues to increase in temperature, the 
rise of temperature may be sufficient to ignite the gas and cause 
explosion. Receivers, therefore, should contain a fusible plug 
that will melt at a temperature less than that at which the mix- 
ture of air and oil vapor will ignite. The pressure at which the 
safety valves open will determine the pressure that can be created 
in the tank and hence the temperature at which the fusible plug 
should melt. 

The tendency of air to drop in temperature when its pressure 

177 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

is reduced is sometimes used in refrigerating machines, particu- 
larly in ships, where the hazard of carrying ammonia or other 
refrigerating elements is more than offset by the safety in using 
only condensed air. In this type of refrigeration the air is placed 
under pressure in a container and allowed to cool, or is cooled 
with a current of water. Its subsequent reduction in pressure by 
expansion causes a drop in temperature which is taken advantage 
of for refrigeration purposes. 

A current of air is the most convenient means for transmitting 
dusts and some solids, such as cotton, wool, shavings, cement, 
flour, starch and similar substances. The velocity of the moving 
air enables it to pick up these particles and to convey them to 
other locations. 

Dust 

Dust is usually considered man's enemy. It is harmful to his 
respiratory passages, obnoxious in its appearance, and in nearly 
every instance is poisonous. Under certain conditions, if mixed 
with the proper amount of air, some dusts become highly ex- 
plosive. Buildings have been wrecked by the explosion of grain, 
celluloid, starch and coal dust and even of fine cotton lint. The 
dust from manufacturing processes involving the use of inflam- 
mable materials is both inflammable and explosive. Even smoke, 
which is virtually a chemical dust, becomes explosive when mixed 
with the proper proportions of air and causes the well-known 
"hot air" explosions in large fires, or even in a small stove or 
furnace. 

While dust is generally considered man's enemy it is also the 
basis of much of our pleasure. Scientists are generally agreed 
that the azure blue of heaven is due to the presence of infinitely 
small particles of dust in the upper atmosphere and that snow 
crystals and rain drops are formed upon particles of dust as 
nuclea. Dust also is the means by which light from the sun trav- 
els, by diffusion, into the interior of buildings or to such portions 
of the places we inhabit as are not reached by the direct rays 
of the sun. The problem of dust and its control has already been 

178 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

discussed in the lecture on "Heating and Ventilation" and will 
not be treated further here. 

Water Hazards 

Rain may be considered a blessing. It furnishes means for 
sustaining life in vegetation, animals and human beings ; it also 
serves men in the form of water power and as a path of travel. 
Whenever men begin to store water, however, in tankj or by 
impounding in flooded areas, its depth increases and the pressure 
in any containing tank or against any bulkhead used as a dam, 
increases approximately one pound for every one and three- 
quarters feet the water rises. It is obvious, therefore, that a dam 
100 feet high has a considerable pressure at the base. This is 
also true of tanks and explains the reason why they are made 
so solidly and why the hoops of cylindrical tanks are of larger 
diameter and placed more closely together at the bottom than at 
the top of the tank. Cylindrical steel tanks, therefore, must have 
heavier plates and riveting at the bottom than at the top. 

A cubic foot of water weighs approximately 62}^ pounds, 
and this fact must be taken into account in providing a foundation 
upon which a tank is to be placed. This same increase in pres- 
sure, due to a depth of water, requires the use of pipe, hose and 
other types of tubular conveyors to withstand the pressure to 
which they may be subjected. 

Snow falling upon a roof may have scarcely any appreciable 
weight when fine and" dry. It is usually figured at less than 10 
pounds per cubic foot under such conditions, but when saturated 
with water it may weigh almost as much as a cubic foot of water 
and roofs are designed and frequently figured on that basis. If 
the roof is flat the effect of this weight is a maximum, but if 
the roof is sloped there may be some drainage of the water away 
from the snow unless freezing takes place to such an extent as to 
freeze the saturated snow and to hold it in place. The saturated 
snow, unless frozen or resting upon a roof under which there is 
considerable heat, may slide, causing serious damage to structures 
or persons below. Very frequently the snow is maintained in po- 

179 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

sition on the sloping roof by a small section that is frozen at the 
eaves and which may subsequently thaw in the presence of a 
warm sun, allowing the entire amount to slide freely. On sloping 
roofs under which there is much heat a steady melting of the 
snow may take place and the water thus formed run to the eaves 
where, in the absence of sun, it may freeze in the form of icicles. 
The attachment of icicles is usually very insecure and a slight 
amount of sunshine or an increase of temperature in the building 
may cause the icicles to melt sufficiently to become loosened and 
to drop upon persons below. 

Rain has a tendency to collect in low spots and during heavy 
showers such quantities may fall in a short time that flood effects 
are created. Foundations become undermined and embankments 
washed away, cellars flooded and serious damage done. When 
rain collects during cold weather there is a tendency for it to 
form in small puddles and to freeze. The number of accidents 
due to persons falling upon such frozen surfaces, even when 
they are not covered with snow and are perfectly visible, is aston- 
ishing. Particularly dangerous is a light fall of rain on ground 
or surfaces already of a temperature below freezing, so that 
they become coated with a thin covering of ice. Another serious 
difficulty is encountered when a person's shoes become saturated 
with water and they step upon extremely cold surfaces that are 
smooth. The result is the same as if they had stepped upon ice 
and they have so little friction between the soles of the shoes and 
the surfaces upon which they are standing that they slip and fall. 

In another part of the lecture the fact is mentioned that winds, 
as a result of their velocity, have great lifting power and that 
this power increases in far greater amount than the slight increase 
in velocity. The same is also true of running water and the de- 
structive effect of a flood is well known to most of us. The 
tendency of shallow streams to rip up their beds and carry mate- 
rial only to deposit this material when the stream broadens and 
the velocity drops may be observed even in street puddles. This 
same principle, however, if controlled, and applied to a water 
wheel or turbine produces power in direct proportion to the 

i8o 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

pressure of the water, due to its elevation above the water wheel. 
The water, when released, sets free the energy due to the velocity 
given by this pressure or head. 

Safety Precautions in Tank Construction 

The weight of water at 625^ pounds per cubic foot is used as 
a basis for reckoning the weights of other fluids per cubic foot. 
This relation is expressed as a decimal part of the weight of a 
foot of water and is known as the specific gravity of the sub- 
stance. Substances having a specific gravity less than one will 
float in water; those of a specific gravity greater than one will 
sink. A knowledge of the specific gravity of liquids is essential 
in the design of tanks and the weight of the substances to be 
stored in a tank must be accurately known in order that adequate 
strength may be provided in the tank structure and in the founda- 
tions. Recently an accident occurred in which a tank, filled with 
molasses, burst as a result of the failure of the designing engineers 
to specify plates of sufficient strength to withstand the pressure 
created by the depth of molasses which could be placed in the 
tank. The engineers figured all strengths of material on the 
basis that water was to be stored in the tank. The substitution of 
molasses, nearly one-third heavier in weight per volume than 
water, resulted in the introduction of strains that burst the tank 
and resulted in the death of some 22 people. 

Rust and Failures Due to Rain 

Rain is usually considered to be composed of pure water, but 
when it falls through the atmosphere above cities it absorbs a 
great amount of impurity due to the gases and smoke in the 
atmosphere. In the vicinity of chemical plants, factories, sheds 
and other places emitting large amounts of combustion products, 
rain becomes highly impregnated with dilute acids, particularly 
in the early periods of the shower. This causes rust in iron or 
steel structures not adequately protected by paint or other cover- 
ing. The writer recalls a large bridge crossing a railroad that 

181 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

was almost entirely destroyed below the floor level by the sul- 
phurous acid that was absorbed from the exhaust of coke-burning 
engines that passed under this bridge. Here the exhaust steam 
kept the surfaces continually damp, especially in cold weather. 
The fact that rain is so pure causes it to absorb impurities with 
rapidity, so that when it falls upon iron or steel which is unpro- 
tected and which may contain some chemical impurities, rust 
develops with astonishing rapidity. Rain also has an almost 
uncanny tendency to find its way through roofs and walls and to 
soak into material that is not protected by some impervious cover- 
ing. This causes swelling, decay, and, in the winter time, a tend- 
ency for material so saturated to expand when the absorbed rain 
is frozen. Parts of buildings have been dislodged and structures 
so weakened by this action that collapse has resulted. Rain, 
when pure, is an almost perfect non-conductor of electricity. It 
is only when water is impure that it becomes dangerous, but since 
so little water can remain practically pure the only safe rule is 
to consider all water as a conductor of electricity and to govern 
oneself accordingly. Tests have been made, however, by playing 
ordinary city water from a fire hose upon high tension wires 
with no ill effects when the stream was several feet or more 
long. 

Heat and Cold 

The exact nature of heat is not known but the effects which it 
causes are a matter of common knowledge to us all because it 
produces so many actions with which we are familiar. Heat 
causes solids to become liquids, and liquids to becomes gases. 
If these processes take place in closed vessels that are not ade- 
quately provided with relief valves, explosions result, but if their 
action is controlled they may be put to useful work. The boiling 
of water in the ordinary steam boiler to form steam and the sub- 
sequent use of steam in an engine is a typical illustration. The 
chemical changes induced by cooking food are also well known. 

Friction may cause heat, a condition understood by those who 
have ever slid down a rope or have gotten their fingers against 

182 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

a rapidly moving object. Heat may be used not only for warming 
a body but for drying it as well, and many processes are depend- 
ent for their completion upon this property. Heat is also de- 
pendent upon pressure, otherwise it would not be possible to 
store heat in a boiler, and to create steam. The temperature in 
a steam boiler bears a definite relation to the pressure and the 
destructive effect of a boiler explosion is due to the heat stored 
in the water and hberated as steam when the pressure drops as 
the boiler bursts. This same phenomenon is also noted when 
one travels to the top of high mountains or above the earth in an 
aeroplane. An aviator may start at ground level with his radiator 
boiling and find it frozen solid a few thousand feet in the air, 
merely because the pressure of the atmosphere at the high eleva- 
tion is so little that the water boils at low temperature and so 
cannot store the heat created by the engine to the same volume 
of steam previously in the boiler. Heat, when created by friction, 
results in destruction, as shown by the wearing down of grinding 
wheels and brake-shoes. 

Various substances have different boiling points and remain 
liquid at temperatures at which others become gases. A knowl- 
edge of the boiling points of materials is essential in order that 
they may be safely handled or stored. Ammonia, for instance, is 
volatile at freezing temperatures while high grade lubricating 
oils may stand a temperature of three or four hundred degrees 
before turning to gas. Gasoline evaporates at ordinary room 
temperatures in free air, alcohol at even lower temperatures. 
Heat is destructive to most forms of animal, vegetable and germ 
life and enables us to provide a means of destroying many of 
the germs that are harmful to our existence. 

While the exact nature of the phenomenon know as heat is not 
known, neither is the nature of the phenomenon known as cold. 
Although the effects of heat are more spectacular and more fre- 
quently observed, because accompanied by fire, the hazards caused 
by a reduction in temperature are quite as important because they 
are apt to be more subtle. The most common effect of cold is seen 
in ice, revealing one of Nature's cleverest provisions. When 

183 

13 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

water drops in temperature it remains practically constant in 
volume but at 39" F. and at temperatures below that and down 
to 32° F. water, while freezing, expands and increases its volume 
about one-seventh. Consequently, a cubic foot of water occupies 
more space as ice than it did as a liquid and its weight per cubic 
foot is less, so that its specific gravity is lower and it, therefore, 
floats on water. But for this fact ice would form from the top to 
the bottom of all natural bodies of water during cold weather and 
result in the extinction of the human race in certain parts of 
the world at least. This expansion of water upon forming into 
ice destroys many structures. If it forms in the crevices of rocks, 
in barrels, or in any other objects in which it can lodge, it exerts 
enormous pressure and frequently disrupts them. A cannon that 
can withstand explosion will succumb to the force of freezing 
water. It used to be a custom to drill rows of holes in granite 
and to allow water to freeze in them to split off the pieces of 
rock desired. If water that is freezing is filled with impurities 
they are forced toward the center of the ice that is forming and 
are often expelled in the form of a core if the container is of 
great strength. This well-known law is revealed in milk bottles 
that are left out in the cold and by means of which the cream is 
expelled. In containers filled with water and in locations where 
they must be left out of doors this destructive action can be 
practically eliminated by the introduction of a pole or wooden 
rod passing from the top to the bottom of the container. As the 
impurities gather toward the center they pass out along the rod 
and when the final closure comes enough compression can take 
place in the rod itself to prevent bursting the container. 

Most bacterial action is dormant at or below freezing tem- 
peratures and this simple law enables us to store food products 
for long periods without deterioration. Many chemical actions 
have definite temperatures at which they cease. 

When water is kept in rapid motion, as it may be in the rapids 
of a river, its temperature may drop to or below the freezing 
point. If it subsequently comes to rest it may suddenly freeze 
with tremendous violence and do much damage, or it may take 

184 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

the form of what is called "frazil ice" which forms in small 
flakes, crystals and needles mixed together. When either of 
these phenomena occur in the forebays of waterpower stations 
it may entirely close them down by filling the slots in the racks. 

Various substances, particularly metals, conduct heat or cold 
much better in some cases than others. Copper, for instance, will 
conduct heat for a much greater distance than will iron, a prop- 
erty taken advantage of in a soldering iron, which not only stores 
the heat but allows it to travel to the point of the iron while it is 
being used. Copper flashing is used for gutters and at the eaves 
of roofs in order that the sun striking on some exposed portion 
of the copper will allow heat to travel back under the ice, freezing 
it, so that it comes off or melts and runs away through the con- 
ductor spout. 

Cold air falls and warm air rises. This simple law of nature 
explains why a furnace, or a hot water heater, is placed in the 
cellar so that the heat may rise through the house and why ice is 
placed in the top compartment of a refrigerator in order that the 
warm air, which rises to the top of the refrigerator, may be 
cooled and fall below to preserve the food. This same principle 
is utilized in the ordinary kitchen range boiler in which the heat- 
ing element in the firepot of the stove heats the water which then 
passes through circulating pipes and rises into the upper part 
of the tank, permitting the cold water in the lower part to enter 
the water-cock and be heated. Hot water will not run through a 
pipe that slopes ever so Httle down hill. 

The principle that cold air falls is used in all cold storage 
plants. Ammonia, carbon dioxide, ethyl chloride or other easily 
compressible gases with low boiling points are compressed to a 
liquid, or nearly so, by a pump. The heat of compression is re- 
moved by passing the compressed gas-liquid through a cooler or 
condenser of some sort. The gas then turns to a liquid (unless it 
has already become so) and, subsequently, it is volatalized by 
releasing the pressure. In doing this it drops in temperature con- 
siderably and takes the necessary heat from the adjacent pipes in 
which it is stored and they in turn from whatever is in contact 

185 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

with them. If a brine solution, which will not freeze at tempera- 
tures as low as 30° below zero, is then circulated about these 
pipes it loses its heat and becomes extremely cold. It may then, 
in turn, be circulated through pipes about the storage spaces where 
it absorbs heat from the air passing about the materials stored. 
This is the principle underlying all refrigeration apparatus re- 
gardless of whether gases or liquids are employed as carriers. 
The hazards in ammonia systems are due to the fact that the 
refrigerating elements are under much pressure. Adequate pro- 
vision should be made for quick escape from buildings in which 
they are used and in addition helmets should be readily accessible 
for those who might enter the building to perform rescues. Many 
plants using ammonia are designed to spray water or steam into 
rooms in which pipes have burst in order to absorb the gas, which 
is highly soluble in water. Ventilation of such rooms should be 
at the top, since ammonia gas is extremely light and tends to rise. 
Low temperatures make materials brittle, particularly if they 
have in them substances or liquids that may freeze. Any material 
saturated with water and exposed to low temperatures should be 
considered as highly dangerous to use unless carefully thawed. 
Some materials are ruined by being frozen. One of the com- 
monest hazards created in this manner is the destruction of manila 
or fibre ropes, canvas or other fabrics, the fibres of which are 
tremendously strained when they are bent or strained in this 
condition. 

Expansion and Contraction 

Expansion results from heating a substance ; contraction from 
cooling. In the design of any structure, therefore, these facts 
should be recognized. Steam-pipes, for example, when heated 
due 'to the introduction of steam, expand considerably and un- 
less provision is made by loops or expansion joints they may 
destroy themselves or the objects with which they may come in 
contact. For example, pipe 2,500 feet long under a steam pres- 
sure of 100 pounds per square inch will expand over four feet 
beyond its length at a temperature of 70 degrees and atmospheric 

186 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

pressure. Steel, in the framework of buildings, raay expand so 
that it destroys the concrete or loosens the brick or stonework 
that may be attached to it. The linings of high chimneys wreck 
the outer shell unless kept properly separated from it. Steel 
rails have been known to buckle so that they remove themselves 
from the ties to which they are attached, as a result of the in- 
creased length due to expansion from the heat of a summer sun. 
Brick pavements when heated, and unless provided with pitch- 
filled or other form of expansion joint, have been known to buckle 
and break, and the destructive effect due to the expansion of such 
pavements is often seen by curbstones and foundations that have 
been pushed out of place. Boiler settings, furnaces, ovens and 
similar equipment that are air-tight and unstrained when cool, 
unless they have been properly designed, may be completely de- 
stroyed when they are fired up for use. 

The strains in closed vessels and containers due to internal 
pressure and expansion caused by heat require the careful de- 
signing of boilers, engine cylinders, flat work ironers and similar 
equipment. If consideration is not given to the use of proper 
staybolts, studs and braces, explosion and loss of life are bound 
to follow. A container designed for internal pressure should not 
be used for a vacuum, nor vice versa. One is designed for pres- 
sure outside bearing in, the other for pressure inside bearing out. 

Expansion of metal due to heat is taken advantage of in the 
operation of thermostats for controlling temperature. In these 
devices the increase in length of a single bar, or the curving or the 
deformation of two dissimilar metals bound rigidly together as 
one piece, operates electrical connections, or valves, which in turn 
operate the main devices for regulating the heat. 

Certain materials absorb moisture and expand tremendously. 
Materials composed of cellulose are used in the spaces between 
colHsion bulkheads. The inrush of water after a collision causes 
this filling to swell and, in many cases, to close relatively large 
holes. Certain substances are also composed of many minute 
cells and are therefore said to be cellular in construction. They 
make excellent heat-insulating materials for use in walls of cold- 

187 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

storage compartments, refrigerators, or for the covering of heat- 
carrying pipes. The best insulation against heat or cold is noth- 
ing, or, in other words, a vacuum — a principle we recognize in 
vacuum, or "thermos," bottles. No heat travels through a true 
vacuum. In the bottle the loss is largely at the neck and stopple. 
Contraction, due to the reduction of temperature, is used to 
hold material together by first heating one part and then allowing 
it to cool over another. 

Rot and Decay 

Rot or decay is the result of the destructive action of fungous 
growths. Dry rot and wet rot are different in that they repre- 
sent action due to decay under different fungous conditions. If a 
piece of wood, for example, is kept immersed in water, particu- 
larly salt water, it will remain in perfect condition indefinitely. 
Piles have been found under old structures in Rome that were 
driven during the early part of the Roman Empire. In construct- 
ing a wharf, the writer once used timber that had been excavated 
from the mud in the Savannah River, and which was reported 
to have been put there early in the ninetenth century. If wood- 
work is alternately subjected to moisture and the action of air, a 
bacterial growth develops which causes the structure to decay. 
Timbers in factories that are exposed to moisture, or to excessive 
heat, may develop rot and decay so that they fail to sustain their 
loads. It is possible to coat timber with chemical preservatives 
so that harmful bacterial action is either prevented or hindered 
in development. 

Beside the special coal-tar preservatives, one of the oldest is 
a solution of zinc chloride. With this protection structures that 
would have rotted within ten years if unprotected are in per- 
fectly sound condition after a service of nearly forty years. 
Whitewash is another excellent preservative for wood, and many 
roofs may be found in which the shingles about the chimney, 
and below the chimney toward the eaves, are in good state of 
preservation, while those outside of this region are decayed. This 
is due to the fact that the lime in the mortar with which the 

i88 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

chimney was laid has impregnated such shingles so that they re- 
main well preserved. Shingles immersed in whitewash before 
laying last indefinitely. 

The old custom of burning the ends of fence posts, and char- 
ring them for a short distance into the wood, preserves them for 
many years longer than posts not so treated. In poles and posts 
the decay is usually in the first foot or two immediately above 
and below the ground where moisture is continually present and 
fosters bacterial and fungous growth. Rot may also be due to 
chemical action, where materials are exposed to such effects. 

Rust is a form of rot strictly chemical in its action, and may be 
the result of the action of water and air or of other chemicals. 
Rust is the term generally applied to a change due to the action 
of water and air, while corrosion is generally used to define a 
rust or decay due to a chemical change. 

Rot, rust and corrosion weaken materials in ways sometimes 
evident to a casual observer and many times in ways that are 
hidden. As layer after layer scales ofiF the strength of the 
material is reduced and failure eventually results. 

Electrolysis 

When two dissimilar metals are placed in contact by means of 
water or of chemical solutions an action may take place by which 
they are gradually broken up and destroyed. If such a process 
begins a slight electric current passes through the metal and gives 
rise to the designation of this action by the term electrolysis. The 
prevention of electrolysis is a matter that has puzzled experts and 
is too technical a matter to cover here. In general, the flow of 
current must be either prevented or directed. Electrolysis is 
present in such a multitude of ways that each particular case must 
be considered by itself. To get some idea of its complexity it is 
only necessary to consider that in the mouths of some persons 
whose teeth are filled with gold and with soft amalgam fillings, 
the acid of the saliva forms a condition such that electrolytic 
action can take place and explains why some soft fillings fail so 
rapidly. The strength of structures depends upon the strength of 

189 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

materials and its distribution in their fabrication. If these ma- 
terials are exposed to the elements or to other action, such as the 
electrolytic action mentioned above, so that their strength 
is reduced, a hazard is created that may have far-reaching 
results. 

Harmful Light Rays 

Ultra-violet light is a hazard increasing as a result of the use 
of exposed electric arcs, electric furnaces, high-brilliancy lights, 
mechanical processes and furnaces in which high temperatures are 
created. It is a sort of light that the eye cannot detect unaided 
and is therefore subtle in its action. It is harmful to all exposed 
tissue, particularly to mucuous membranes. Protection can be 
afforded only by the use of opaque substances or by properly 
colored glass. The rays not only destroy tissue but may impair 
the functional capacity of various organs of the body. They are 
particularly apt to destroy the retina of the eye. 

While ultra-violet rays are harmful they also serve useful pur- 
poses. They are extremely destructive to all bacteria that affect 
the potability of water and are necessary for the completion of 
certain chemical actions. The writer recalls a case in which it 
had been customary to place patent leather in the open air for 
drying because it had been found that it would not dry except in 
the direct rays of the sun, active in ultra-violet rays. The process 
was subsequently carried on indoors under the rays from a naked 
electric arc which is rich in ultra-violet rays. 

The Force of Gravity 

Gravity is a force that tends to draw all material toward the 
earth. It results in many forms of accidents due to the falling 
of material or of persons from elevations and causes the collapse 
and overturn of structures. Gravity acts at a place, either within 
or outside of a body, so that if the body is suspended at that point 
there is no tendency for it to rotate and if dropped it will fall 
toward the earth in a straight line. If it is a rigid object it will 

190 



FORCES FOR AND AGAINST WORKMEN 

fall without assuming a changed position and if it is non-rigid, it 
will assume a definite shape. Any object to remain in a stable 
position must be so placed that its center of gravity hes within the 
points which form the base upon which the object is supported. 
The recognition of this law governs the foundations of all struc- 
tures and is seen in the spread of the towers upon which tanks are 
placed, the spread of chair legs and the movements of our bodies 
to adjust themselves to this law. The illustrations in which this 
law is fundamental might be carried on indefinitely, but if one 
recognizes the simple principle that any body will overturn when 
its center of gravity goes beyond its points of support, it will be 
easy to avoid the difficulties that a failure to recognize this law 
always introduces. 

Inertia 

Inertia is the tendency of a body at rest to stay at rest ; or, if in 
motion, to continue in motion in a straight line until acted upon 
by forces. Trains, when moving at high velocity, if they cannot 
be acted upon by the forces of the brake, cause collision. A 
piece of broken emery wheel, or its chips, fly away from the 
stone until arrested in their flight by some object or person. A 
plank requires effort to lift it and slide it along the pile. A golf- 
ball remains at rest, or takes its flight under the impulse of a 
blow. Its soaring flight is arrested by the friction of the air and 
it again comes to rest. Billiards illustrate inertia splendidly, so 
do governmental bodies. 

The foregoing points illustrate some of the ways in which fail- 
ure of structures, devices or processes may occur and a few of 
the methods that have been successful in preventing such failure. 
One might continue almost indefinitely recounting Nature's forces, 
either as hazards or helps to man, and explaining the laws that 
govern them. If the reader has been induced to think along 
new lines, or to investigate further in fields not here sug- 
gested or covered, this discussion will have served its purpose. 
Whether or not the reader does this, the fact must be clear to 

191 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

him that in these days our very existence is involved with a mul- 
titude of natural laws that must be reckoned with and obeyed at 
all times if we would continue to live. 



192 



SAFETY EDUCATION AND SHOP 
ORGANIZATION 

By ArtBur H. Young, Manager, Industrial Relations, 
International Harvester Company 

SUCCESSFUL safety work begins with the safety inspector, 
or the safety engineer as he is coming to be called. Only 
after he has become thoroughly imbued with the possibilities of 
constructive service offered through his particular field of en- 
deavor can we look for thoroughly efficient work in the shop or 
factory. By this, I do not mean to say that successful safety 
work can be done without the active participation of the manage- 
ment; nor to attempt, in any way, to indicate what the relative 
value of participation (or rather, consecration) of the safety en- 
gineer, management, foremen, workmen, or any other factor is. 
They are all necessary, and without the enlistment of the best 
efforts of each the safety work of any establishment cannot attain 
its maximum results. I do say, however, that the man who is to 
have charge of the safety work must be filled with a conviction 
of the economic and humanitarian necessity for organized work, 
and further, that his participation must come from a real desire 
to be of service to his fellow man. 

Service the Basis of Safety Work 
The history of the safety movement indicates that there have 
been a number of men and women who have gone into it because 
it was rather fashionable and because it offered a place well up 
in the staff of the organization. Moreover, "safety engineer" was 
to them rather a high-sounding term. Possibly others went into 
this field because of the opportunity for fair salaries in work of a 
semi-professional nature. Gradually they have been eliminated, 
and I think the people who have stayed are those who entertain 

193 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

a real idea of service. I think that no "safety inspector," "safety 
supervisor," "safety engineer," or whatever he chooses to call 
himself, can succeed unless he has that basic idea of rendering 
real service. He must subserve self. 

The safety engineer, or the safety inspector, has my sincere 
sympathy. Many times, after a program has been carefully for- 
mulated he must inoculate some one else with the idea, and, the 
moment it begins to "take," yield to that person all of the credit. 
He cannot rush into the limelight himself and get the praise due 
as in recognition of successful endeavor. Rather, he must en- 
courage the other fellow to believe that the idea was his own 
and any resulting success is his. Consequently, he will have a 
little more pride and a little more care in the success of the work. 

Selling the Safety Idea 

A well known safety engineer has said, "the psychological point 
in safety work is that fundamentally we are little interested in 
the things that other people do for us or at us, but we are greatly 
interested in the things we are doing for ourselves," a safe bit 
of psychology to apply to all of our work. In "selling the safety 
idea," it is almost always necessary to exercise those qualities of 
real leadership whereby the enlistment of all men is secured in 
the movement and the credit for its success shared equally by all. 

Selling the safety idea to the proper men in the management 
of the work in the Federal arsenals and navy yards — a consider- 
able number of military and naval officers who were acting in 
the midst of the greatest military crisis the country had ever 
known — is a conspicuous example. These men were without an 
adequate conception of the safety movement. At the time the 
inspection of the arsenals and navy yards was made, as American 
citizens, we blushed to find that the tide of the safety movement 
had gone past the doors of most of the Federal industrial estab- 
lishments and that they had been unaffected by it. They were 
not open to inspection by insurance agencies; they were immune 
from the Federal and State disciplinary acts ; they were discour- 

194 



EDUCATION AND SHOP ORGANIZATION 

aged, if not, indeed, forbidden to participate in national conven- 
tions. The efforts of those officers who had somewhat of an in- 
terest in the movement were wholly sporadic. There had been 
no definite purpose, no well laid out plan from official Wash- 
ington. 

Safety Is Good Business 

The approach to the officials in Washington was wholly on a 
business basis. They were first told that eight minutes of their 
time were wanted, which was granted. They were told that safety 
was "good business" and this principle was demonstrated in the 
experience of a large number of industrial concerns. Beginning 
with the great United States Steel Corporation, showing a reduc- 
tion of 80 per cent in accidents, and, in some of the Corpora- 
tion's subsidiary companies, of nearly 90 per cent in the acci- 
dent frequency rates, there followed the story of the work done 
by the Eastman Kodak Company, the Chicago and Northwestern 
Railway and a dozen other concerns with which you are familiar. 
A sheaf of letters from officials of those companies, certifying 
that such facts were true, preceded the argument that safety was 
a sound economic proposition. It was carefully explained that 
they had not gone into safety work to make money. Back in 
1906 when the cry was raised to save lives by the prevention of 
accidents, these companies had taken up safety work for humani- 
tarian reasons ; but they were also in it for good business reasons 
because the awful toll of industry was keeping desirable men 
away. 

The figures of the Steel Corporation show that since 1906, in 
round numbers, 23,000 employees have been saved from death 
and serious disability. This number was found by taking the 
accident frequency rate as at 1906 and multiplying the average 
number of employees each year by that rate. Theoretically this 
gave them the number of accidents they would have had each 
year if they had not improved their practice. That number of 
accidents multiplied by the average cost of settling each case for 
the year would give theoretically the amount of money the Cor- 

195 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

poration would have paid to settle this theoretical number of 
cases if they had not bettered their practice. Subtracting from 
that sum the actual amount that was paid out in compensation 
gave them the gross saving due to the perfection of their safety 
work. Charging against that gross saving every dollar that they 
had spent for their safety department, for safety devices, for 
the maintenance of first aid and hospital equipment, the time of 
committees serving on inspection, and every other cost which 
might legitimately be charged against the safety movement, this 
gross cost equalled exactly half of the gross saving. The net 
was fifty per cent of the gross. In other words, for every dollar 
they had put into safety they had received that dollar back and 
one hundred per cent dividend. 

Some By-Products of Safety 

Now let me show some of the by-products of safety. If 23,000 
employees of the United States Steel Corporation had been saved 
from death or severe disability (defined as "causing loss of time 
from work of thirty-five days or over, or permanent disability") 
it could be assumed logically that every one of the 23,000 cases 
would have to be replaced by the hiring of a new employee. The 
cost of replacing an experienced worker with an untrained new 
employee has been estimated at amounts ranging from $10.00 to 
$200.00, probably depending largely on the way the cost is figured, 
and, of course, on the character of the work on which the man 
is replaced. Workers in the steel mill are not in the least costly 
to replace. It is probable that $50.00 represents a conservative 
estimate of the average expense incurred in replacing an em- 
ployee. Here, then, we have a neat by-product of the safety 
movement: a reduction of labor turnover worth considerably 
more than a million dollars to a single corporation. The experi- 
ence of other companies parallels that of the Steel Corporation 
and their savings have been relatively as great. 

Another by-product of safety has been the "boosting of morale" 
following the introduction of organized safety effort. Probably 
this is largely due to the formation of workmen's safety commit- 

196 




;^-. 




1^ - 



^3^^:- 



Court,--y rnitfd St 

Safeguards for a High Tension Pole 



The barbed wire device prevents climbing of the pole and contact with the high tension wires. 
Warning signs also call attention to the electrical hazard. 



EDUCATION AND SHOP ORGANIZATION 

tees. There is a remarkable unanimity in the form of safety 
organization followed by thousands of employers who are en- 
listed in safety work today in that they all embrace the idea of 
the shop committee in some form or another. 

It was early found that in order to maintain the interest of the 
employee in safety it was necessary to place some of the respon- 
sibility on his shoulders. This was most readily accomplished 
through safety committees. When committees of the workmen 
have met with similar committees of the management, sat around 
a conference table and discussed a non-controversial subject, the 
success of which meant their common betterment, the logical re- 
sult was bound to be a greater interest in their work on the part 
of the men and a greater interest in the welfare of the worker by 
the management. 

One of the most interesting, concrete evidences of the value of 
this sort of action is furnished by the Steel Corporation, which 
was threatened with a suit for its dissolution in the Federal 
Courts. Many old employees voluntarily appeared before, and 
earnestly pleaded with, the Masters in Chancery to continue the 
Corporation for the benefit it had been to them as individuals. 
They feared a return to "the old days" when no organized safety 
work was carried on. Of course, nobody knows what effect their 
pleas had on the court, but it is a "safe bet" that the stockholders 
were not very much displeased at their evidence of loyalty. 

So I say to you that the employer can, and should, be ap- 
proached on a straight "dollar and cents" basis. Insurance men 
particularly can show him the reduction in rates that is possible. 
If the figures have not been changed since a year ago (1918), a 
possible reduction of forty per cent can be shown in his premium, 
besides the elimination of a number of fines, making a substantial 
monetary saving to the employer who is an insurer but not to 
those in the self-insured class, as larger employers sometimes are. 

Sincere Support of the Management Is Imperative 

With such approaches, made on a strictly business basis, it is 
no trouble at all to get a manager's attention. After you have 

197 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

driven that argument home, show him the great humanitarian 
possibihties in the movement ; how much it means if through his 
interest and initiative there could, at the end of a year, be said 
to have been effected a saving of a single Hfe or the prevention 
of a single accident. Those are the things that are worth 
while. 

After the management has been sold I would say that it is 
useless to go further unless the hearty support of the management 
is given. To go into a shop without the support of the manage- 
ment and believe that you can do effective work is a mistake. 

Safety is used as "camouflage" by some employers. I remem- 
ber, when I was director of the American Museum of Safety, 
being asked by an employer if I could recommend to him a safety 
inspector. I told him we had a number of applications on file 
and asked his problem and how much he expected to pay. He 
said he would pay a thousand dollars a year, and that he had a 
substantial problem — about 2,000 factory employees. I tried to 
find out why he gauged the activities of a safety supervisor on 
such a low wage basis and learned that it was because some of 
his competitors and neighbors in the business had well-going 
safety organizations, and in order to retain public favor and keep 
his place in the community he thought he, too, ought to do safety 
work. Not for his technical knowledge did he wish to employ' 
the man ; he only "wanted a man whom he could call a safety 
inspector who could get by." I told him the story of two farm 
hands who were discussing the veracity and character of a neigh- 
boring farmer. One of them said, "He is a liar." "Well," re- 
plied the other, "I don't know that I would call him *a liar' ex- 
actly, but I do know that whenever he wants to call his own hogs 
in at feeding time he has to get some one else to do it for him." 
The number of such cases is steadily decreasing, however. 

Organizing the Foremen for Safety 

The next important factor in the organization is the foreman. 
Again I say my sympathies are altogether with the foreman. He 
is looked upon by the management as their representative for 

198 



EDUCATION AND SHOP ORGANIZATION 

carrying the individuality of the firm to the men, as standing for 
plant and company policies and seeing that they are executed. 
On the other hand, the men look to him as their spokesman to 
go to the management and get those things to which they believe 
they are entitled. He is usually between two fires, underpaid, 
and not satisfying either master. Our safety work is not an in- 
dividual problem and the foreman is necessary to it. 

No man, individually, can engender and keep going the safety 
movement in any enterprise, be it for a dozen or two hundred 
thousand employees. It is a proposition to which all of us must 
bend our efforts and cooperate if we are going to have one hun- 
dred per cent efficiency. If only one man fails to get into the 
game we never can obtain that mark because some day that fel- 
low will have an accident himself or cause an accident to others 
and spoil the record. Safety, like ventilating apparatus, plant 
cleanliness and many other matters depends upon the foreman 
and upon everyone making it a part of the every day work of the 
shop. When you do that your own work is lighter. After all it 
is the foreman who is on the job and sees each man all day 
long. The possibility of cautioning him to correct his actions, to 
cease from dangerous practices, to keep the shop clean or main- 
tain safety devices always in place, logically lies with the fore- 
man. If safety is good business then it is a part of the business 
curriculum of the establishment and it is up to the foreman, as 
the representative of the executives, to carry on the work. It is 
true you will have to educate him. You need meetings of the 
foremen, and the first step after selling the idea to the manage- 
ment is to have these meetings of foremen, showing them the 
possibilities of the movement, endeavoring to get them to come 
in and take hold, and making them feel that they are doing it. 

Workmen's Safety Committees 

Then come the men in the shop. The most successful way 
(the unanimity with which the safety committee plan has been 
adopted proves its success) is to ask men to elect — or, at the 
start, for the management to appoint — certain employees to serve 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

as a safety committee. After all, you will find that they probably 
know more about how to prevent accidents than we who have 
studied the problem do ourselves. We say that about seventy-five 
per cent of all accidents are due to carelessness, but, if those 
habits are due to carelessness, it is up to the man himself to cor- 
rect them. We may show him how, but his actual salvation lies 
with the man himself. If a larger number of employees can be 
made to see and to feel an interest in their problems and be 
shown how to define them then we have increased our safety 
work. The most important thing in safety work is to define the 
problem itself. If you have a punch press that needs a guard 
and can get the workman to determine where the hazard lies, he 
is a pretty slow-going American who is not able then to devise 
some sort of a guard for it. 

I have seen gear guards of soap boxes. So long as they are 
in place and maintained in place they are efficient; just as effi- 
cient as new, polished brass guards. The employer who has the 
real gospel of safety is he who actually thinks safety, who con- 
verts himself from a naturally careless man into an habitually 
careful one. Therein lies the solution of our problem. 

Engineering Revision and Mechanical Safeguarding 

I think the development of safety work is really one of the 
most romantic chapters in industrial psychology. The first thought 
we had was that accidents were preventable by mechanical guard- 
ing. Concerns spent hundreds of thousands of dollars in putting 
railings on all platforms over six feet high; in covering all re- 
volving parts ; in removing projecting screws ; in housing gears ; 
replacing ladders with stairs, and so forth. 

I think the most interesting example of such work is probably 
the overhead electric traveling crane. It was an invitation of 
the Association of Iron and Steel Engineers which caused the 
National Safety Council to come into being. The electrical en- 
gineers asked a number of safety men of the iron and steel busi- 
ness to attend their convention in Milwaukee in 191 2 to discuss 
safety as related to overhead electric traveling cranes. That 

200 



EDUCATION AND SHOP ORGANIZATION 

coming-together of the safety men in the iron and steel business 
led to the formation of the National Safety Council. 

Most of you can remember the old electric overhead crane of 
ten or twelve years ago, consisting simply of two girders with a 
cage suspended wherever it was the least convenient to climb into 
it. The only manner of approaching it was by means of the 
lattice column of a building girder. The crane had no clearances. 
Workmen were supposed to keep out of the way, and the awful 
toll of men caught on the runway, struck by traveling loads or 
hurt when blocks ran together, was enormous. The operation of 
a crane of today is about as safe as sitting in your library at home 
reading a novel. The cab on the bridge is located so that a full 
view is had of the floor below ; the approach to the cab is railed 
in ; both bridge girders are equipped with walks and hand rails ; 
the walks have a toe-board so that loose parts cannot fall off; 
the blocks are prevented from running together by automatic de- 
vices; car wheel fenders are provided to pick up a man's hand 
or foot that might otherwise be crushed ; rules have been formu- 
lated so that no man is allowed to go on the crane runway ex- 
cept by permission of the foreman. In most mills, when men 
are working on the crane runway, or along it at any place, an 
extra man is stationed with the operator whose sole duty it is 
to warn him when the crane approaches such locations. We have 
safety blocks that can be clamped on the track, to prevent the 
crane from passing by a danger point and dynamic braking for 
making a quick stop. One could go on for hours reciting the 
perfection that has been reached in mechanical guarding of over- 
head electric traveling cranes. 

The Development of Safety Education 

In the development of safety educational work, the influences 
that are brought to bear are just as interesting as the stories that 
the "ad" men tell in the conventions of advertising experts. Con- 
sider the development of our bulletin boards as an instance. The 
first bulletin was a blackboard on which were tacked newspaper 
clippings and monthly reports showing the number of accidents 

201 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

that had happened in the plant. The bulletin remained for a 
whole month unless the rain washed it off. Occasionally a chisel 
would appear there with a story of how one of its chips put out 
somebody's eye. Plain painted blackboards soon lost their inter- 
est and so were gradually improved until now we usually have 
an illuminated board, at least four inches deep, with a glass front, 
so that small safety devices can be placed in it. 

One of the most interesting developments was that at the 
Brooklyn Navy Yard. They had thirty-five illuminated bulletin 
boards, each with a removable back, 30 by 36 by 4 inches deep. 
It was their idea, after an original display had been put in each 
of the thirty-five, to put a new board in No. i box each day, move 
No. I to No. 2, and so on. No. 35 was retired and altered, the 
removable back making that feature very easy. The displays 
themselves were novel. The safety engineer was assisted by his 
sister and other members of his family. They bought shirting 
material and wall paper to make different backgrounds, the idea 
being that when a new board was put in it would be so startling 
in its appearance that everybody would know it was a new bulle- 
tin and would come over to see what had happened. They would 
sometimes have newspaper clippings, or a letter written in long- 
hand ; one or two displays of safe or unsafe practices, the safe on 
the green and the unsafe on the red half of the board. The 
"thermometer plan" was also used to show the decrease in the 
number of accidents. I remember particularly one bulletin. It 
was called "Swat the Fly." Mounted on a pure white back- 
ground, with a single fly in the corner was a description to the 
effect that the sanitary officers at the restaurant had killed a cer- 
tain amount of brothers and sisters of this fly, all because people 
did not close the windows. Another picture was a photograph 
of a pile of flies, about as high as a small boy. Some contest 
had been carried on in Boston and dead flies were turned in until 
there were several millions. On day there was displayed an eye 
which had been removed from a workman because of injury by 
a chip. He had not worn his goggles. That eye had been pre- 
served by the doctor in a bottle of alcohol and was placed in 

202 




t' ^^^^^ 




If 



I 



EDUCATION AND SHOP ORGANIZATION 

there — the most gruesome thing of its kind I ever saw. Because 
it was the eye of a fellow worker, lost through an act of careless- 
ness on his part, it had "punch." 

The perfection of the modern safety goggle has been rather 
romantic in itself. The first goggles used as protection against 
flying chips had heavy steel frames and the glass itself was not 
of optical quality. The main feature of protection was a heavy 
wire mesh interposed between the eye and the goggle lens. They 
were heavy, unsightly and inconvenient, made alike for every 
type of face. Gradually there has been developed, by a peculiar 
method of manufacture, an optical glass strong enough to with- 
stand without being shattered, not only the occasional chip, but 
even the flying nut or hammer head. The frames are of a light, 
non-corrosive metal, easily adjustable, capable of being fitted to 
the individual who wears them. Their perfection has largely 
eliminated the awful toll of blinded and half -blinded men for- 
merly so common in foundry chipping rooms and places of similar 
hazardous occupations. 

We went further than the bulletin board. We began to realize 
that if a man was going to think safety all of the time, he could 
not begin when he came into the plant. "Safety bulletins" could 
be displayed in the plant where the man might be from eight to 
twelve or more hours, as it used to be. This was not sufficient 
because the man was out of our control and away from the 
thought of safety for a large number of hours in the week. Then 
from the laboratory of the industrial inspector came our public 
school campaigns. These were all started by industrial safety 
engineers and inspectors who wanted to reach the man in his 
home, to allow him no rest from the thought of safety. Thus 
came the first move to teach accident prevention in the schools, 
not only because it had an application to school children, but more 
particularly (and selfishly with the industrial engineer) because 
he wanted the child to say to the father when he came home, 
"Daddy, I heard about safety today"; and, again, when he left 
for work in the morning, "Now, don't get hurt today. Daddy; 
you know you can prevent accidents if you want to." This led 

203 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

to the introduction of safety in the public schools and to a more 
general application of public safety. Men outside of industry 
were interested because they saw the possibility of preventing the 
street accidents, and, again, the industrial engineer was called upon 
to lead these movements. The development of safety from its 
original mechanical engineering aspect through its educational 
activities has been like a romance; more interesting than any we 
have had to do with. 

The development and use of motion pictures in safety work 
is another interesting story. When the first safety film came 
out it was hailed with loud hurrahs as a wonderful forward step, 
and now we teach safety by motion pictures. There are today 
over a hundred safety films, some of strong dramatic interest and 
some with no definite plot, simply illustrations of safe and unsafe 
practices, all available for educational purposes and many for 
free distribution. 

The Spirit of Cooperation in Safety Work 

There has been another fine thing about the safety movement. 
In all of the investigations I have made and "SOS's" I have sent 
out, I have yet to receive my first "turn-down" from a safety in- 
spector in connection with proper questions as to methods and 
results. Everyone remarks upon the fine spirit of mutual assist- 
ance and willingness to help the other fellow and will do anything 
that will advance the movement. Men will work for weeks or 
months on some knotty problem, the solution of which if kept to 
themselves would hang their record up at the end of the year a 
little higher than their competitors ; but, just as soon as they have 
accomplished the thing, they want the whole world to know it, 
so that mankind in general may be benefitted. In that way do 
we as safety inspectors and workers differ from persons in a 
great many other activities. 

Employee Representation an Extension of the Safety 

Movement 

I spoke to you of the unanimity with which the committee sys- 

204 



EDUCATION AND SHOP ORGANIZATION 

tern has been adopted in all concerns which have seriously taken 
up safety work. Just now, industrial democracy and employee 
representation are very fashionable terms. May I say to you that 
the safety movement is the granddaddy of industrial democracy 
and employee representation? The success that we have had in 
safety work by going to the men themselves and inviting them to 
meet with their managers around a conference table, there to 
frankly and freely discuss their problems of common interest, 
has led to the formation of shop committees and this so-called 
"industrial democracy." In that process managers and employees 
have found that they are of the same common clay. It is a fact 
that here in our American industries ninety per cent of the mana- 
gers, owners and executives of our plants have come up through 
the ranks as self-made men. They know that no metaphysical 
change occurs which suddenly transforms "them, after their con- 
tact with their own fellows. Before we had this point of contact 
through such a non-controversial subject as safety it was an in- 
creasingly common thing for employees and employers gradually 
to separate, sometimes in hostile camps, because of a lack of con- 
tact and failure to understand each other. The safety movement 
has been bridging that gap and bringing them together. Because 
they have sat in conference each has found the other fellow just 
as anxious to do the best he could for his fellow man. 

Previous to the establishment of committee meetings most of 
the managers and boards of directors had simply made the best 
guess they could as to the proper solution of a matter of policy, 
in many cases making no explanation. This was looked upon 
with suspicion by employees and so came a rift, which was annoy- 
ing at first ; one that gradually widened. Then, through safety 
committees the workmen found they had a means of getting con- 
tact with an expression from employers. On the other hand the 
employers found that by having a group of workmen together 
in conference with them, these employees wished to get their em- 
ployers' expression, whether it had been invited or not. 

The work of the safety committee has been gradually extended 
to include matters of plant sanitation, health, plant restaurants, 

205 



SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 

and other activities until it is today manifesting itself in this 
newly discovered industrial democracy, — a very natural develop- 
ment of safety work. What its possibilities are I cannot tell you. 
It has absolutely no limitations because it is a form of collective 
bargaining both just and right. So far as I have been able to 
learn, where it is rightly founded and justly carried out, it has 
not worked to the disadvantage of either employee or employer. 
The last item is that of exhibits. You can talk to people and 
give statistics, but these things are not firmly fixed in the minds 
of the individuals in an audience when they leave; but if you 
can have placed at your service a portable exhibit, or, if it is 
not portable, bring your operators to the exhibit itself to see 
definitely the solution of your problem — that visualization they 
will never forget. There is a great difference between explaining 
things by word of mouth and discussing the object itself, or in 
watching the development of an idea or process in a motion pic- 
ture. In both of these methods we have visualization. To have 
seen a thing and to have had it recorded by the eye gives an im- 
pression a great deal more indelible than to have received it by 
word of mouth through the ear. To get more contact with men 
and women interested in the same business is highly important 
to you ; an axiom which I think you would do well to remember 
and follow. 



206 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

At present safety literature is in rather a fragmentary state 
since there are not many books upon the subject of accident pre- 
vention. There is, however, a vast amount of information to be 
found in documents, pamphlets, reports of organizations, trade 
papers and periodicals, for safety engineering is one of the few 
humanitarian activities accelerated and not retarded by the war. 

The selected bibliographies that follow are made up from pub- 
lications in the Safety Institute's free reference library, where 
they may be consulted by anyone interested in safety work. 

In addition to these references the library contains an extensive 
file of trade catalogues of safeguards. 



Alexander, M. W. 

Cost of health supervision in industry. Lynn, Mass. 1917. 
American Iron and Steel Institute. 

Some dangers from dust; respirators, exhaust systems of various 
companies. Bulletin, March, 1915. 
Avery Company, Peoria, 111. 

Relationship of impaired physical condition to accidents, by C. G. 

Farnum. 1915. 
Medical supervision in the industries, by C. G. Farnum. 191 5 
Scope of industrial medicine and surgery, an address by C. G. 
Farnum. 19 16. 
Best, Harry. 

The blind. ^(iZ P- N. Y. 1919. See P. 2, Chap. 9. Blindness and 
accidents. 
Conference of Industrial Physicians and Surgeons. Proceedings, 1916, 

1918. ^ 
Council of National Defense. 

Industrial fatigue. Wash. 1918. Welfare work series No. i. 
Erskine, Lillian and Roach, John. 

Standardization of working essentials. Safety, Sept., 1917. 
Geier, O. P. 

Industrial medical service of the future. American Industries, 
July, 1917. 
Goldmark, Josephine. 

Fatigue and efficiency. 302 and 591 p. N. Y. 1912. 
Human health and the American engineer. 
Journal of Industrial Hygiene, June, 1919. p. 75. 

207 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Kober, G. M., and Hanson, W. C, Editors. 

Diseases of occupation and vocational hygiene. 918 p. il. Phila., 
1 91 6. 
Life Extension Institute N. Y. C. 
Health letters. 

Protecting the human machine, an address by E. E. Rittenhouse, 1918. 
Little, R. M. _ 

Opportunities for industrial surgeons. Modern Medicine. July, 
1919- p. 118. 
Massachusetts Industrial Accident Board. 

Possible influence of fatigue as a cause of accidents. Annual re- 
port 1914. p. 182. 
Medical inspection of factory employees by M. A. Austin. Journal of 

Industrial Hygiene, June, 1919. 
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., N. Y. C. 

Health of the worker, dangers to health in the factory and shop 

and how to avoid them. 1913. 
Teeth, tonsils and adenoids. 1912. 

Hiring and firing, by L. K. Frankel and Alexander Fleisher. 1918. 
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. 

Mortality statistics of insured wage-earners and their families, comp. 
by L. I._ Dublin. N. Y., 1919. 
National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis. 
Medical examination of employees, a symposium. 1914. 
Present status of medical examination of employees, by H. E. 
Mock, 1916. 
National Safety Council. 

Health service sectional meeting, National Safety Congress, 1918. 
See Proceedings, p. 147. 
New York Industrial Health Bureau. N. Y. City. 

Pamphlets. 
New York State Industrial Commission. 

Industrial accident prevention, Albany, 1916. Special bulletin 
No. 77- 
Norton Company, Worcester, Mass. 
Employee relations activities. 
Health and sanitation. 
Ohio State Board of Health. 

Consumption and preventable deaths in American occupations, by 
E. R. Hayhurst. See Monthly bulletin, July-August, 1913. 
Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry. Harrisburg. 

Habits of health indispensable to industrial efficiency. Bulletin No. 

4. 1917. p. 21. 
Timely hints to workers — leaflets. 
Posey, W. C. 

Hygiene of the eye. 344 p., il. Phila., 1918. 
Prudential Insurance Company of America,^ Newark, N. J. 

Mortality from tuberculosis and respiratory diseases from exposure 
to dusts. Charts exhibited at the Fourth National Expo- 
sition of Safety and Sanitation, N. Y. C, 1917. 
Relation of bathing facilities to health in the industries, by J. W. Scher- 
eschewsky. 
American Association for Promoting Hygiene and Public Baths 
Journal, Jan., 1918. 

208 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Spaeth, R. A. 

Problem of Fatigue. See Journal of Industrial Hygiene, May, 1919. 
Thompson, W. G. 

Occupational diseases. 724 p., il, N. Y., 1914. 
Tolman, W. H., and Guthrie, A. W. 

Hygiene for the worker. 231 p., il. N. Y., 1912. 
U. S. Congress. 65th. 

Vocational rehabilitation of persons disabled in Industry; joint 
hearings before the Committee on Education and Labor. Dec, 

1918. Wash., 1919. 

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Fatigue as a possible factor in causing accidents. See workmen's 

insurance and compensation series No. 9. 1917. p. 139. 
Mortality from respiratory diseases in dusty trades (inorganic 

dusts), by F. L. Hoffman. See Industrial accidents and 

hygiene series No. 17. 1918. 
Training of factory health officers, by Kristine Mann. Bulletin 

No. 247, 1917. p. II. 
U. S. Public Health Service. 

Studies of the medical and surgical care of industrial workers. 

1919. Bulletin No. 99- 

What to do to become physically fit. 1918. Supplement No. z^ to 
public health reports. 
U. S. Public Health Service. Reprints from public health reports. 

How industrial fatigue may be reduced. 1918. No. 482. 

Industrial morbidity statistics, 1918. No. 484. 

Methods for field study of industrial fatigue, 1918. No. 458. 

Occupations and mortality in N. Y. City, 1914, 1917. No. 400. 

Physical examination of workers, 1914. No. 234. 

Present status of our knowledge of fatigue products, 1918. No. 465. 
Vogt, J. H. 

Sanitary devices for the removal of dust fumes and gases. See 
N. Y. State Industrial Safety Congress, 1918. Proceedings. 

p. 33. 
Western Electric Company. 

Physical examination of employees, suggestions to examining phy- 
sician. Chicago, 1917. 

IL 

Aetna Life Insurance Company. 

Emergency medical and surgical aid: what to do and what not to 
do, by E. A. Wells, il. Hartford, 191 1. 
Ambrine, new treatment for burns. Safety engineering, Jan., 1919. 
American Iron and Steel Institute. 

Surgical discoveries of the war and their application to industrial 
accidents. Monthly bulletin, May-June, 1917. 
American Red Cross. 

First aid text books. 
Beyer, D. S. 

Industrial accident prevention. 421 p., il. Boston, 1916. 
Hospital and first aid equipment. Pt. 8. Chap. 50. Resuscita- 
tion. Pt. 8. 

209 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Clark, W. I. 

Keeping workmen in repair. System, Sept., 1913. 
Conference of Industrial Physicians, Feb., 1916. 

Asphyxiation and suffocation. Proceedings, p. 3. 
Darlington, Thomas. 

Illness in industry, its cost and prevention. Safety engineering, 
Feb., 1918. 
Doty, A. H. 

Manual of instruction in the principles of prompt aid to the in- 
jured. Edition 5. N. Y., 1912. 
Lauffer, C. A. 

Resuscitation from electric shock, traumatic shock, drowning, 
asphyxiation from any cause. Edition 2, il. N. Y,, 1915. 
Medical and surgical service for employees in industrial establishments. 
Monthly labor review, August, 1919. p. 218. Refers to a study 
of 170 establishments in the Eastern and Middle Western States 
made by the U. S. Public Health Service. 
Morrow, A. S. 

Immediate care of the injured. 356 p., il. 
Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York. 

Accidents, emergencies and illnesses, a manual for reference, il. 
N. Y,, 1900. 
National Lamp Works, Cleveland, Ohio. 

First aid practice for factory dispensaries, by W. A. Haldy, 1914. 
National Safety Council. 

First aid: lecture outline. Chicago, 1919. 
Paraffin-wax or closed method of treatment of burns. Surgery, gynacol- 

ogy and obstetrics, April, 1918. 
Remarkable case of "employee No. 1653." 

Bulletin, July, 1919, of N. Y. State Industrial Commission. (Refers 
to paraffin-wax treatment of burns.) 
Resuscitation from electrical shock by the prone pressure method with 
latest rules recommended by the Third Resuscitation Commis- 
sion of the National Electric Light Association. Safety, 
June, 1919. 
Roach, John. 

Health risks from dust caused by buffing, polishing and grinding 
metals. Safety engineering, May, 1919. 
Rochester, N. Y,, Railway and Light Company, 

First aid directions for sickness and accident cases. 
United Gas Improvement Company. 

First aid in accident cases. Edition 4., il. Phila., 1913. 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Industrial health and efficiency. Washington, 1919. P. 147. Treat- 
ment of minor injuries, burns, scalds, and acid burns. Bulle- 
tin No. 249. 
U. S. Bureau of Mines, Washington. 

Advanced first aid instructions for miners, a report on standardi- 
zation, 1917. 
Physiological effect of different gases on man— properties of 
mine gases and methods of resuscitation : A chart. No 
date. 
Report of committee on resuscitation from mine gases. 1914. 
Technical paper No, 77. 

210 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Rescue and recovery operations in mines after fires and explo- 
sions, 1916. 
U. S. Navy Dept., Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. 

Report on medical and surgical developments of the war, by W. S. 
Bainbridge: A special number of the U. S. Naval Bulletin. 
Wash., Jan., 1919. 
Winslow, Kenelm. 

Prevention of disease. 348 p., il. 
Wisconsin Industrial Commission. 

First aid handbook for use in shops. Madison, 1915. 



III. 



(a) Protective Clothing for Men 

Acute septic infections of the fingers. Modern medicine, May, 1919. 
American Museum of Safety. 

Foundry practice. Manuals of safety No. 3, New York, 1912. 
Beyer, D. S. 

Industrial accident prevention. 421 p., il. Boston, 1916. See 
Part 8. Personal elements. 
California Industrial Accident Commission. 

Woodworking safety orders. 1916. 
Chip fractures of terminal phalanges. Journal of Industrial Hygiene, 

June, 1919. 
Easton, W. H. 

Electrostatic dust precipitation. Industrial management. Dec, 1918. 
Erskine, Lillian, and Roach, John. 

Standardization of working essentials. Safety, il. July-Septem- 
ber, 1917. 
Fidelity and Casualty Company of New York. 

Prevention of industrial accidents. 1914. P. 168. Woodworking 
machinery. 
Hamilton, Alice. 

Practical points in TNT poisoning. Monthly labor review. Jan- 
uary, 19 1 9. 
Haskins, M. K. 

Goggles in shipyards. Safety engineering. March, 1919. 
Hoffman, F. L. 

Menace of dust, gases and fumes in modern industry. Pennsyl- 
vania Dept. of Labor and Industry. Bulletin No. i. 1918. 
Jansen, A. W. 

New hazards in electric arc welding. Safety, Feb., 1919. 
Kober, C. M., and Hanson, W. C, Editors. 

Diseases of occupation and vocational hygiene. 918 p., il. Phila., 
1916. 
Manning, V. H. 

Mine safety devices developed by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. II. 
Reprint Smithsonian Report. 1916. 
Massachusetts Board of Education. Dept. of University Extension. 
Lessons on bodily protection. . Typewritten. 

211 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Massachusetts State Board of Labor and Industries. 

Rules and regulations relating to safe and sanitary working con- 
ditions in foundries and the employment of women in core- 
rooms. Boston, 1917. Bulletin No. 10. 
National Founders' Association. 

Foundry safety code. 
National Workmen's Compensation Service Bureau. 

Safety in woodworking. 1918. 
National Safety Council. 

Cleaning and finishing rooms in foundries. 
Safe clothing for men and women. Safe practices No. 16. 
Woodworking machinery and equipment. Safe practices No. 20. 
Nelson, G. N. 

Hazardous practices in foundries. Safety engineering, June, 1914. 
New Jersey Dept. of Labor. 

Sanitary and engineering industrial standards. P. 12. Regulations 
for removing dust and refuse generated by woodworking ma- 
chinery. 
N. Y. State Industrial Commission. 

Simple and inexpensive respirator for dust protection. 1918. Spe- 
cial bulletin No. 90. 
Newell, William. 

Head and eye protection. N. Y. State Industrial Safety Congress. 
1918. Proceedings. P. 69. 
Norton Company, Worcester, Mass. 
Employee relations activities. 
Health and sanitation. 
Pennsylvania Dept. of Labor and Industry. 
Safety standards: foundries, 1915. 
Safety standards : woodworking machinery. 1915. 
Travelers Standard. Articles on protective clothing. 

For workmen in acid pipe lines. May, 1918. P. 95. 
For workmen in TNT plants. June, 1918. P. 133. 
For workmen in chlorate plants. April, 1918. P. 114. 
Nitration and nitrous fume poisoning. May, 1918. P. 81. 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Accidents and accident prevention in machine building. 1917. In- 
dustrial accidents and hygiene series No. 13. 
U. S .Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Dangers to workers from dusts, fumes and methods of protection. 
1913. Industrial accidents and hygiene series No. 3. 
U. S. Bureau of Mines. 

War gas investigations. 1919. Reprint from bulletin No. 178A. 
Use of Army gas masks in industries. Journal of industrial hygiene, 

June, 1919. 
Wisconsin Industrial Commission. 

Safety orders. 1912. P. 28. Woodworking industries. 

(b) Suitable Work Garments for Women in Industry. 

Cleveland, Ohio, Chamber of Commerce — Committee on Industrial Wel- 
fare. 
Substitution of woman for man power in industry. 1918. 

212 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Conference of Industrial Physicians and Surgeons, April, 1918. 

Health hazards to women as the result of the war emergency, by 
Mrs. Samuel Semple. Proceedings, p. 3. 
Great Britain. Home Office. 

Pamphlets 1-27 on the substitution of women in industry for en- 
listed men. Edition 2. London, 1917. 
Great Britain. Home Office. 

Protective clothing for women and girl workers employed in fac- 
tories and workshops. London, 1917. 
Merchants Association of New York. 

Increased employment of women in industry. N. Y., 1917. 
Readjustment and operation of industry in England since 1914. 
N. Y., 1917. 
National Industrial Conference Board. 

Wartime employment of women in the metal trades. Boston, 1918. 
Research report No. 8. 
National Safety Council. 

Safe clothing for men and women. Chicago, 1919. Safe practices 
No. 16. 
New York State Industrial Commission. 

Industrial replacement of men by women in the State of New York, 
1919. Special bulletin No. 93. 
Pennsylvania Dept. of Labor and Industry. Harrisburg, 1918. 

Shop clothing for women. 1918. Safety standards No. 29. 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Industrial health and efficiency, final report of British Health of 
Munition Workers' Committee. P. 200. Protective clothing. 
Wash., 1919. Bulletin No. 249. 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Women in the lead industries, by Alice Hamilton. Wash., 1919. 
Bulletin No. 253. 
U. S. Dept. of Labor. Women in Industry Service. 

Standards governing the employment of women in industry. Wash., 
1918. 
Wisconsin Industrial Commission. 

Factory equipment, housekeeping and supervision, a handbook for 
employers of women. Madison, 1918. 

Magazine Articles 

Employment of women in the factory of Brown and Sharpe Mfg. Co. 
Open shop review, June, 1918. 

Physical capacity of women, by C. E. Ford. General Chemical bulletin, 
March, 1918. 

Training women machinists, by I. C. Decatur and H. A. Chase. Machin- 
ery, May, 1918. 

Women as machinists, by F. R. Still. Industrial management, August, 1917. 

Women in foundries. Open Shop review. No., 1918. (Refers to British 
foundries) 

Women in industry. Travelers standard, Dec, 1918. 

Women in railway work. Railway review, July 2^, 19 18, 

Women workers, have they made good ? By Mary N. Winslow and E. E. 
Adams. American drop forger, Jan., 1919. 

213 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Women workers in the shop, by D. A, Baker Machinery Jan., ^918. 
Women's labor in British war mdustnes, by H. L. Qum. Iron Age, jan. 
17, 1918. 

IV. 

^"'' The blind. New York, 1919. Chap. 9- Blindness and accidents. 
^^''*°ktorfo"n*S^ed^ltvSt'ig^a?r'rs"erious permanent iniuries from 
Federal sta^n^'r^f ft^h^e^alVd^e ^?^?ection. Safety, Jan.. X9:9. 

^^""leSctuTfnTon welding operations, by W. S. Andrews. Gen- 

eral Electric Review. Dec, 1918- 
^"^'Eyetjuries. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Bulletin No. 248, 

p. 269. 

Kopfer^schnuth, B. .^ ^^^ <,^y.,eetylene industry. Safety engineering, 

^-''XS'SS ^ll^'lV^V''N<SrS;january .9:4. Eye 
protectors for grinders and machm.sts. March, 1915. 

^^^^- |rda?d°srpr°o\e^f'on^reU1nTthe^ P^^^^^^^^^ ^i accidents. :9:6. 
^^''"teSot'^o? Yt"aSd';"e goggles. . and . Underwriters 

Laboratories report. I9i7- . . t>v a .. 

National Committee for the Prevention of Bhndness. 

Eye hi'iards in industrial occupations, by G. L. Berry. 1917. 

''^''%.^;lfZcSr:^ safe doling: lecture outUne. 
Gas and electric welding. Safe practices. No. 23. 
Goggles. Safe practices. No. 14. 

^^"^'N^w^inks in eye protection. National Safety Congress, 1917. 
^'^Proceediigs, Pt 14, P- I279. Reprinted Safety engineermg. 
Nov., 1917. 
^"''"■nTgie^ne of the eye. Phila., 1918, p. ^33. Wounds and injuries. 
Safeguarding the eyes of industrial workers. Safety. May, igi7- 

""■ ^- HealXconsSn at steel mills. Technical papers No. 102. 
^- ^-GlasSs^for proSs Ae eyes from injurious radiations. Edition 
optical '!^^:^tS^n^^S^^^tr^^ which appear as im- 
UUrnLtrrndV\?b^leTAn^S^ion^of eye-protective glasses. X9.9. 
Technologic paper No. 119. 
214 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

U. S. Steel Corporation. Bureau of Safety, Relief, Sanitation and Wel- 
fare. 

Bulletin No. 3. 1912. 
Wisconsin Industrial Commission. 

Eye injuries and their prevention. Bulletin, 1913. 
Wisconsin, University of. Extension Division. 

Eye in industrial accidents. Bulletin, 1916. 



V. 

Aetna Life Insurance Company. 

Woodworking safeguards, by David Van Schaack. Ed. 3, 1913. 
American industries (periodical). Preventive appliances, supplements. 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 

Safety standards. 
Beyer, D. S. 

Mechanical safeguards. Safety engineering. October, 1917. 
Burlingame, L. D. 

Machine shop hazards. Safety, February, 1917. 
California Industrial Accident Commission. 

Electrical station safety orders. 1918. 

Electrical utilization safety orders. 1917. 

Woodworking safety orders. 1916. 
Carter, F. W. 

Safeguarding of machinery. Safety engineering, May, 1918. 
Compensation Inspection Rating Board. N. Y. City. 

Field book of safety standards. 1917. 
E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. 

Guarding of general machinery. 1917. 
Fidelity and Casualty Company of New York. 

Prevention of industrial accidents. 1914. 
General Electric Company. 

Industrial control series: a collection of articles reprinted from 
General Electric Review. 1916. 
General Electric Company. 

Prevention of accidents in the company. Gives mechanical and 
electrical safeguards. 
Greenwood, Walter. 

Safety enclosed switches. Safety engineering. January, 1918. 
Illinois Steel Company. 

Specifications and devices for safety of workmen. 1910-1914. 
2 vols. 
Industrial Compensation Rating Board. 

Handbook of industrial safety standards. 
Machinery (periodical). Articles on safeguarding. 

Safety devices as applied to machine tools, by Clarence Bolton, 
November, 191 1. 

Safety organization of a machine shop, by L. D. Burlingame. No- 
vember, 191 5 

Study of safety and welfare work in manufacturing and selling 
organizations, by F. E. Cardullo. November, 191 5. 

215 
15 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Massachusetts Board of Education. Dept. of University Extension. 

How accidents occur and how they may be prevented; Prin- 
ciples in design and construction of mechanical guards; Power 
generation and control; Power transmission. Typewritten. 
Massachusetts Industrial Accident Board. Annual reports. 
Massachusetts State Board of Labor and Industries. 

Safety rules and regulations and machinery standards. Industrial 
bulletin No. 9. 1917. 
National Safety Council. 

Construction and design of safeguards: lecture outline. 
National Safety Council. 

Safe practices : crane construction No. 4 ; belt shifters and belt ship- 
pers, No. 5; belts and belt guards, No. 7; shatfing, couplings, 
pulleys, gearing. No. 8; engine guarding and engine stops. No. 
9 ; grinding wheels, No. 13 ; power presses, No. 18 ; woodwork- 
ing machinery and equipment. No. 20. 
New York State Industrial Commission. 

Guarding of dangerous machinery, vats, pans and elevated runways. 
New York State Industrial Safety Congress, 1916, 1918. Proceedings. 
New York State, University of. Agricultural and Industrial Education 
Division. 
Safety first for vocational schools. 1916. Bulletin No. 621. 
New Jersey Dept. of Labor. 

Standard safeguards, transmission machinery. 1915. 
Pennsylvania Dept. of Labor and Industry. 

Safety standards, 1915 : machine tools, forging and stamping. 
Rausch, C. C. 

Power drives for sewing machines. Safety. June, 1919. 
Safeguarding industry: a wartime necessity. Safety engineering. Au- 
gust, 1917.^ 
Safety. Selected articles in recent numbers. 

Federal standards for safeguarding remote control apparatus. Feb- 

bruary, 1919. 
Power transmission apparatus in Federal industrial establishments. 

April, 1918. 
Safety in oxy-acetylene welding. Dec, 1917. 
Travelers Insurance Company. 

Industrial standards. 
Travelers standard. Articles on machine guards. 

Safety in the machine shop. Nov., 1915. February, March, May, 
Dec, 1916. March, May, 1917. 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Accidents and accident prevention in machine building, by L. W. 
Chaney and H. S, Hanna. 1917. Industrial accidents and hy- 
giene series No. 13, 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Mechanical safeguards, by D. S. Beyer. Bulletin No. 248. 1919. 
U. S. Bureau of Standards. 

Conference on industrial safety codes. 1919. 
U. S. Shipping Board. 

Safety specifications for plant construction and equipment. 1918. 
U. S. Steel Corporation. Committee of safety. 

General requirements for safety pertaining to physical conditions. 
1918. 

216 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Van Schaack, David. 

Accident prevention in textile industries. Safety engineering. 
March, 1918. 
Wilson, S. C 

Machines that are hard to guard. Safety engineering. Jan., 1918. 
Workmen's Compensation Service Bureau. 

Universal safety standards. 
Young, R. J. 

Fundamental principles of safeguarding. National Safety Congress, 
1917 Proceedings, p. 98. Reprinted in Safety. December, 1917. 

VI. 

A lesson in profits. System. April, 1917. 
American industries. Supplements. 

Hazards of factory floors. May, 1915. 

Safe wheelbarrows and trucks. July, 191 5. 

Safeguarding of ladders, stairs and platforms. February, 1915. 
Beyer, D. S. 

Industrial accident prevention. 1916. 
Briggs, C. A. 

Safety engineering in the machine shop. Iron age. Oct. 24, 1918. 
Federal safety standards for toilet, wash and locker room. Safety. Sept., 

1918. 
Grouping of working machines used by the N. Y. State Industrial Com- 
mission. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Industrial accidents 
and hygiene series No. 9. 
Machinery (periodical). Articles. 

Layout of forging plant. June, 1918. 

Reorganization of a run-down plant. June, 1917. 

Safety organization of a machine shop. November, 1915. 
Massachusetts Rating and Inspection Bureau. 

Industrial safety standards. 
Mowery, H. W. 

Common cause and prevention of industrial casualty. 1917. 

Slipping and tripping. 1916. 

Some hazards and safety suggestions in connection with construc- 
tion, inspection and maintenance of public utilities. 1915. 
National Safety Council. 

Bulletins, chairs, dressing rooms for women workers. 
National Safety Council. 

Plant conditions, arrangement, order, lighting : lecture outline. 
National Safety Council. Safe practices. 

Floors and flooring, No. 11; Oiling devices and oilers, No. 10; 
Stairways and stairs. No. 2; Woodworking machinery and 
equipment, No 20; Yards, No. 17. 
New York City. Police Dept. 

Foot troubles, their cause and prevention. Police bulletin. July, 

1915. 
New York State Dept. of Health. 

Flat foot and its treatment, by I. W. Brewer. Health news. Dec, 

1917. 

217 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

New York State Industrial Commission. 

Machinery layouts and their relation to safety, by P. C. Spence. 
Bulletin. January, 1919. 
Ohio State Board of Health. 

Hygienic factory construction. Monthly bulletin. Jan.-Feb., 1912. 
Pennsylvania Dept. of Labor and Industry. 

Standard railings and toe boards. 
Price, G. M. 

Modern factory. 1914. 
Shop trucks. American Dropforger. January, 1919. 
Tennessee Dept. of Workshop and Factory Inspection. ^ 

Safeguarding stairways, platforms and floor openings. 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Industrial health and efficiency, final report of the British Health 
of Munition Workers' Committee. 1919. Bulletin No. 249. 
Wharton, H. M. 

Planning the industrial plant. Industrial management. June- 
Sept, 1919. 
Workshop design and equipment. Mechanical engineer. March 2, 1917. 

VII. 

Baldwin, W. J. 

Apparatus for cooling, drying and purifying air. American So- 
ciety of Mechanical Engineers Journal. December, 1917. 
Banning, Kendall. 

Ventilation pays. System. September, 1916. 
Carrier, W. H., and Busey, F. L. 

Air conditioning apparatus, principles governing its application and 
operation. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 
Critical review of methods for the study of dust content of the air. Jour- 
nal of industrial hygiene. July, 1919. 
Council of National Defense. 

Requirements and standards upon heating and ventilation. 1918. 
Welfare work series No, 4. 
Device for washing and cooling air. Electrical world. January i, 1916. 
Exhaust systems for grinding, polishing and buffing wheels. Safety. 

January, 191 7. 
Fidelity and Casualty Company of New York. 

Rules for the operation and care of steam boilers and other 
pressure apparatus. 
Final report of the committee on standard methods for the examination 

of the air. American journal of public health. January, 1917. 
Heating and ventilating magazine. Articles. 

Is washed recirculated air better than fresh air? October, 1916, 
Notes on air cooling practice. May, 1917. 

Quantitative determination of air dust, by E. V. Hill. June, 1917. 
Requirements for the heating and ventilation of industrial build- 
ings : measures taken in thirteen States to insure suitable work- 
ing conditions in factories. January, 1917. 
Studies in air cleanliness, by G. C. & M. C. Whipple. July, 1915. 
Hubbard, C. L. 

Compressed air. Industrial management, May-July, 1917. 

218 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Ingram, E. H. 

Htimidity-^eat and accidents. Safety engineering. June, 1917. 
Massachusetts Rating and Inspection Bureau. 

Industrial safety standards : pressure apparatus. 1917. 
New York City Dept. of Health. 

Standards for ventilation in the City of New York adopted by the 
Board of Health. 1917. 
Oliver, Thomas. 

Dangerous trades. N. Y., 1902. Chap. 54. Diseases due to work- 
ing in compressed and stagnant air. Chap. 56. Effects of 
concussion of the air. 
Pennsylvania Dept. of Labor and Industry. 

Safety standards : compressed air apparatus. 1915. 
Price.^G. M. 

"Modern factory. 1914. Chap. 8. Air and ventilation in factories. 
Scientific American Supplements. Articles. 

Modern air: facts relating to air and ventilation in relation to 

health, by J. F. Norton. July i, 1916. 
Workers in compressed air : precautious adopted by the N. Y. 
Public Service Commission for protecting their health. August 
4, 1917. 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Effect of the air hammer on the hands of stonecutters. 1918. In- 
dustrial accidetns and hygiene series No. 19. 
Dangers to workers from dust, fumes and methods of protection. 

1913. Industrial accidents and hygiene series No. 3. 
Mortality from respiratory diseases in dusty trades, by F. L. Hoff- 
man. 1918. Industrial accidents and hygiene series No. 17. 
U. S. Public Health Service. 

Health hazards from the use of the air hammer in cutting Indiana 
limestone. 1918. ^ Reprint No. 460 from public health reports. 
Standards for measuring the efficiency of exhaust systems in polish- 
ing shops. WeeTcly public health reports. March 9, 1919. 
Wet and dry air compared. Coal age. April i, 1916. 

VIII. 

Beyer, D. S. 

Industrial accident prevention. 421 p., il. Boston, 1916. Pt. 2. 
Chap. 8. Lighting. 
Cooper-Hewitt Electric Co. 

Pamphlets on lighting: lighting for production and safety; light 
as a factor of efficiency; economics of industrial lighting. 
General Electric Company. 

Handbook on incandescent lamp illumination. 
Illuminating Engineering Society. 

Code of lighting, factories, mills and other work places. 1915. 
Diffusing mediums, by A. J. Marshall. -1909. 
Light, its use and misuse. 1912. 

Principles of shades and reflectors, by Louis Bell. 1909. 
Relation between light curtailment and accidents, by R. E. Simp- 
son. 1918. 
Some results obtained through illuminometry, by Norman Mac- 
beth. 1909. 

219 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Marks, L. B. 

Factory lighting and its bearing on the heaUh and productivity of 
workers. N. Y. State Industrial Safety Congress. 1916. Pro- 
ceedings, p. 211. 
National Electric Light Association. 

Modern industrial lighting. 1912. 
Reports and monthly bulletin. 
National Lamp Works, General Electric Company. 

Data on illumination for the use of engineers. 1910. 
Fundamentals of illumination design. 
Industrial lighting. 191 3. 

Protective lighting for industrial plants. 1917. 
National Safety Council. 

Plant conditions, management, order, lighting: lecture outline. 
Shop lighting. Safe practices No. 22. 
New Jersey Department of Labor. 

Code of lighting for factories, mills and other work places. 1916. 
N. Y. State Industrial Commission. 

Lighting of factories and mercantile establishments. 1918. 
Posey, W. C. 

Hygiene of the eye. II. Philadelphia, 1918. 
Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry. 

Safety standards — lighting. 1916.. 
Price, C. W. 

Shop lighting as a means of accident prevention. U. S. Bureau of 
Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 248. 1917. P. 213. 
Price, G. M. 

Modern factory. 574 p., il. N. Y., 1914. Chap. 5. Light and illu- 
mination. 
Rausch, C. C. 

Definite means of insuring adequate illumination in workplaces. 
Safety, July-August, 1919. 
Travelers Insurance Company. 

Illumination and accident prevention in paper mills. 1914. 
U. S. Bureau of Mines. 

Health conservation at steel mills. 1916. Technical paper No. 102. 
U. S. Bureau of Standards. Scientific papers 

Djaylight efficiency of artificial illuminants. 1910. No. 125. 
White light from the mercury arc and its complementary. 1910. 

No. 128. 
An interlaboratory photometric comparison of glass screens and 
tugsten lamps involving color differences. 1916. No. 277. 
U. S. Bureau of Standards. 

Influence of quality of gas and other factors on the efficiency of 
gas mantle lamps. 1918.^ Technologic papers No. no. 
U. S. Public Health Service. Reprints from public health reports. 

Lighting of industrial establishments with a suggested system of 

maintenance rating for artificial light equipment. 1917. No. 429, 

Code of lighting for factories, mills and other work places, report 

of committee on lighting, Council of National Defense, 1919. 

No. 499. 

Western Electric Company. 

How to figure illumination. 1915. 

220 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Wisconsin Industrial Commission. 

General orders on sanitation, shop lighting. 1913. 



IX. 

Cocks, G. H. 

Experimental studies of the effect of various atmospheric condi- 
tions upon the upper respiratory tract. Chicago. 1915. 
Conference of Industrial Physicians. 1916. 

Relation of the extreme temperatures to the efficiency of the work- 
man, by Alfred Stengel. Proceedings, p. 28. 
Croker, E. F. 

Suggested regulations for fire drills. Safety engineering. June, 
1917. 
Hamilton, Alice. 

Excessive heat and humidity are factors in occupational disease. 
Safety and sanitation conference. N. Y. C, 1913. Minutes, p. 87. 
Kansas Dept. of Labor and Industry. 

Factory inspection and accident prevention. Report, 1915-16. 
Lee, F. S., and Scott, E. L. 

Action of temperature and humidity on the working power of 
muscles and on the sugar of the blood. American Journal of 
physiology. May, 1916. 
Mass. Board of Education. Dept. of University Extension. 

Safety engineering from the standpoint of the fire hazard. Type- 
written. 
National Safety Council. 

Planning safety inspection work. Service series bulletin No. 351. 
Workmen's inspection committees : lecture outline. 
New York State Industrial Safety Congress. Addresses in proceedings. 
Factory exits and fire hazards, by Patrick Shea. 1917. P. 253. 
Heat and ventilation from the viewpoint of the industrial physician, 
by C. A. Lauffer; Heat and ventilation from the viewpoint of 
the heating and ventilating engineer, by C. A. Booth. 1916. 
P. 218, 22,2. 
Horizontal vs. vertical exits, by H. F. J. Porter. 1916. P. 153. 
Maintenance and repair and their relation to safety, by C. C. 

Rausch. 1918. P. 50. 
Occupancy and its relation to exit facilities from the viewpoint of 

the life hazard, by H. W. Forster. 1916. P. 146. 
When, what and how to inspect, by J. J. Heelan. 1918. P. 42. 
Safety enginering (periodical). Articles. 

Safety'' to life in factories. June, 1917. 

Safety to life in retail stores and schools. August, 1919. Both 
refer to fire protection. 
Scott, E. L. ' 

Effect of temperature and humidity. Metal worker, plumber and 
steamfitter. August 11, 1916. 
Stecher, L. I. 

Effect of humidity on nervousness and on general efficiency. 
Archives of psychology No. 38. December, 1916. 

221 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 
X. 

American Academy of Political and Social Science.^ 

Personnel and employment problems in industrial management. An- 
nals, May, 1916. 

Stabilizing industrial employment. Annals, May, 1917. 
Briggs, C. A ^ ^ ^ 

Safety engineering in the machine shop. Iron age. Oct. 24, 1918. 
Bueno, J, R. de la Torre. 

Employees' publication, its function and make-up. Safety, Nov., 

1917. 
Calder, John. 

Mechanical engineer and the prevention of accidents. American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers. 
California Industrial Accident Commission. 

Safety committees, form of organization: general safety orders. 
1916. 
Chaney, L. W., and Hanna, H. S. 

Can serious industrial accidents be eliminated? II. Safety. July- 
August, 1918. 
Community Motion Picture Bureau. New York City. Pamphlets. 
Douglas, J. B. 

Safety bulletin box. Safety engineering. Feb., 1918. 
Equitable Life Assurance Society. Department of Safety and Personnel. 

Organized safety. 1919. 
Final report on joint industrial councils. Great Britain. Monthly labor 

review. December, 1918. P. 1513. 
Fish, E. H. ^ 

Principles of employing Tabor. Industrial management. Feb.- 
March, 1919. 
Haywood, C. B. 

Organization of safety work in a plant of 2000 employees, having 
foundry, machine shop, woodworking shop and paint shop: a 
thesis. 1918. Typewritten. 
Hutton, F. R. _ 

Safety engineering. International Engineering Congress. 1915. 
Industrial management (periodical). Articles on shop committees. 

Aborn, W. G., and Shafer, W. L. Representative shop committees, 

America's industrial roundtable. July, 1919. 
Stoddard, W. L. How far should shop committees go? August, 

^919. , . 
National Electric Light Association. Accident Prevention Committee. 
How to organize and carry on a campaign for the prevention of 
accidents. 1914. 1916. 
National Safety Council. 

Lantern slide service. 
Principles and practice of safety. 191 9. 
National Safety Council. Lecture outlines for schools for safety super- 
visors. 
Safety and the manager; qualifications of a safety engineer, his 
duties and opportunities; bulletin boards; reaching the fore- 
man, what he can do to promote safety. 

222 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

New York State Industrial Commission. 

Plan for shop safety, sanitation and organization. 1919. Special 
bulletin No. 91. 
Pennsylvania Dept. of Labor and Industry. 

Standardization of safety committees and safety committee's work, 
by C. W. Price. Monthly bulletin, Feb., 1917. 
Rausch, C. C. Outlining the Federal safety movement. American drop- 
forger. September, 1918. 
Safety supervisor, by whom should he be chosen, to whom should 
he be responsible, what authority should he have? N. Y. State 
Industrial Safety Congress. 1918. P. 174. 
Safety. Recent articles on safety organization. 

Calder, John. Training the foreman. July-August, 1919. 
Does safety pay? July- August, 1919. 
Safety Institute of America. 

List of motion picture films on safety and health. 1919. Type- 
written. 
Safety psychology. Travelers standard. Feb., 1919. 
Society of Industrial Engineers. Chicago. 

Procedings of conference. March, 1919. 
Travelers^ Insurance Company. 

Foremen and accident prevention. 1914. 
Organization in safety work. 1917. 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Safety movement in the iron and steel industry, 1907-1917. 1918. 
Industrial accidents and hygiene series No. 18. 
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Conference of Employment Managers' 
Association. Reports. 
Philadelphia, 1917. Bulletin No. 227. 
Rochester, 1918. Bulletin No. 247. 
U. S. Dept. of Labor. Working Conditions Service. 

How to give illustrated lectures on accident prevention to work- 
^ men. 1919. 
U. S. Shipping Board. Industrial Relations Division. 

Works committees and joint industrial councils: a report by A. B. 
Wolfe. 1919. 
U. S. Steel Corporation. Bureau of Safety Sanitation and Welfare. 

Bulletins. 
Young. A. H. 

Practical aspects of the safety movement. Industrial management, 
Oct., 1917- 
Young, R. J. 

Fundamental principles of safeguarding. National Safety Con- 
gress. 1917. Proceedings. 



22Z 



INDEX 



Accident frequency and health, 195 
Accidents due to compressed air, 

177 
Acid handling, clothes for workers, 

39, 55 
Adenoids, 14, 15 

Air, 176 (see also Compressed Air) 
Air conditioning, 120 
Air, moving, 114, 122 
Aisles, 95 

Aprons, asbestos, 40 
Arc lamps, 156 
Arms, 55 

Asbestos aprons and leggings, 39 
Asphyxiation by smoke, 172 
Auto-intoxication, 28 
Automatic stops, 87 

Bad air, 14 (see also Ventilation) 

Belts, safety, 40 

Bibliography 

Lecture I. Body which gets hurt, 
207 

Lecture II. Injured body and Its 
treatment, 209 

Lecture III. (a) Protective cloth- 
ing for men, 211 

Lecture III (b) Suitable work 
garments for women in indus- 
try, 212 

Lecture IV. Safe heads and good 
eyes, 214 

Lecture V. Guarding machinery, 

215 
Lecture VI. Arrangement of ma- 
chinery and working places, 217 
Lecture VII. Heating and venti- 
lating, 218 
Lecture VIII. Illumination, 219 
Lecture IX. Nature's forces for 

and against workmen, 220 
Lecture X. Safety education and 
shop organization, 221 
Blood poisoning, 20, 23 
Body which gets hurt, 3 

bibliography, 207 
Bones, 18 
Brooklyn Navy Yard bulletin 

board, 202 
Bruises, 20 



Bulletin boards, 201 

Caisson work, 176 

Carbon arc welding y6 (see also 
Welding) 

Chaney, L. W., 4 

Chemical hazards, in fires, 172 

Circulation of the blood, 109 

Clewell, C. E., 163 

Cold, 182 

Color, in connection with light- 
ing, 147 

Common hurts, 23 

Compressed air, hazards, 176 

Congress shoes, 42 

Contusions, 20 

Conveying and hoisting apparatus, 
48 

Co-operative management, 205 

Copper, 185 

Cuts and lacerations, 21 

Decay and rot, 188 
Digestive fads, 10 
Digestive tract, 9 
Drafts, danger from, 114 
Dust, no, 132 

" removal, woodworking, 133 

" explosions, 178 

" and fumes, control of, 124, 
127 
Dye houses, air conditioning, 132 

Ears, protection for, 53 
Efficiency and inefficiency, 93 
Electric light, 155 (see also Light- 
ing) 
Electric shock, 27 
Electrical distribution equipment, 

85 . 
Electricity, static, 173 
Electrolysis, 189 
Engine room safeguards, 86 
Epilepsy, 31 
Exhaust systems, 44 
Exhibits, 206 
Exits, 96 
Expansion and contraction, 184, 

186, 187 
Explosives, 174 



225 



INDEX 



Eye protection, 40, 41, 52, 61, yZy 

75, 203 
" "fogging" of goggles, 78 
" hazards to eyes in various in- 
dustries, 68 
" restful and irritating colors, 78 
" sight and efficiency, 05 
" strain, 77, 78 
" strain, tin workers, 143 
Eyes, accidents, 62, 105 
" accidents. Navy Yard, 76 
" accidents, cost of, 77 
" structure of, 72, 135 

Face masks, 40 

Fatigue, 16 

Factory building and the safety en- 
gineer, 80 

Federal Compensation Act allow- 
ance, eye injuries, 77 

Feet, 21, 55, loi 

Feet, accidents, 42 

Finger rings, danger of, 48 

Fingers, 21 

Fire as servant or destroyer, 167 

Fire extinguishers, 168 

Fire protection, 96, 168 

First aid work, fundamental prin- 
ciples of, 2Z 

Fisk, E. L., 104 

Fits, 30 

Floors, 99, 100, 107 

Fog, 175 

Food, II, 19 

Foot-candle, measurement of light, 
145 

Foremen and goggles, 63 

Foremen and safety, 198 

Foundrymen, protective clothing 
for, 41 

Foundrymen's shoes, 39 

Fractures, 23 

Frankford Arsenal shop clothes for 
women, 58 

Fumes, 14, 43 (see also Dust) 

Furnace workers, 28 

Gas lighting, 157 

Gasoline, 173 

Gases and liquids under pressure, 

r '^5 • 

Gases, poisonous, 44 

General Electric Company, 95 

Gernon, J. L., 43^ 92 



226 



Girls (see Women in Industry) 

Glare, 41, 148 

Glass, conductor of heat and cold, 

118 
Gloves, 37, 55 

Goggles (see Eye Protection) 
Good housekeeping, 2>^ 
Gravity, force of, 190 
Grinding wheels, eye hazards, 70 
Guarding machinery, 79 ' 

bibliography, 215 
Guthrie, A. W., 45 

Hair, hazards due to, 51 
Handling material, 98, 104 
Hands, 22, 55 » 

Hat Factories, 130 
Hats, 38 

Head and eye protection, 61 
Head, protection for, 38, 40, 53, 150 
Health and accident frequency, 4 
Heat, 116, 182 

" absorption by colors, 119 

" strokes, 114 

" strokes and heat exhaustion, 28 
Heating, methods of, 120 
Heating and ventilation, 108 

bibliography, 218 
Heating and ventilating apparatus, 

value of, 129 
Heavy weights, danger of lifting, 48 
Helmets, 38, 41 
Hemorrhage, 24 
Hernia, 105 
Hoffman, F. L., 129 
Hoisting and conveying apparatus, 

48 
Hospitals, plant, 29 
Human machine, 29 
Human system, 108 
Humidity, 121, 131 
Hysteria, 30 

Illuminating Engineering Soci- 
ety, 145 

Illumination, 135 (see also Light) 
bibliography, 219 

Incandescent lamps, 155 

Industrial democracy, 205 

Inertia, 191 

Infection, 20, 21, 23, 134 

Infra-red and ultra-violet rays, 41 

Injured body and its treatment, 23 
bibliography, 209 



INDEX 



Inspection, 19, 30 
Inspectors, 17 
Insulation, 188 

Iron workers, protective clothing 
for, 40 

Jansen, a. W., 42 

Joint industrial councils, 205 

King, W. G., 40, 61 

Labor turnover, 3 

Ladders, 102 

Lead poisoning, 48 

Leggings, 39, 42 

Life Extension Institute, 94, 104 

Light, absorption of, 142, 147 
" diffusion of, 144 
" hazards due to glare, 41 
" injurious light rays, 41, 70, 

76, 190 
" measurement in foot can- 
dles, 145 
" bibliography, 214, 219 

Little, R. M., 2,2 

Lockers, 60 

Loose clothing, danger of, 37 

Lungs, 108 

Machine guards, 49 

" construction, 83 

" design, 82 

Machinery, 79 

" arrangement of, 92 

" bibliography, 217 

Marks, L. B., 162 
Masks, gas, 44 
Mazda lamps, 156 
Mechanical safeguards, 200 
Medical service, 3 
Metal workers, 39, 41 
Mercury vapor lamps, 158 
Muscles, II 
Muscular cramps, 28 

National Safety Council, 200 
Nature's forces for and against 
workmen, 167 
" bibliography, 200 
New York Navy Yard, 42, 105 
New York State Industrial Com- 
mission, 43 
Nose-bleed, 30 
Nose, mouth and throat, 1 10 



Nurses, 29 

Odors, 112 

Oil, 173 

Oil fires, 171 

Oral hygiene, 13 (see also Teeth) 

Overalls for women, 49 

Pearl button industry, 133 

Penn. Dept. of Labor and Indus- 
try, standards for shop cloth- 
ing for women, 50 

Penn. Railroad and protection of 
workers from ultra-violet rays, 
78 

Penn. Railroad, goggles for work- 
ers, (^ 

Penn. workmen's compensation 
laws, value of an eye, 67 

Perspiration, 113, 133 

Phonograph industry, 133 

Physiology, 108 

Platforms over cold floors, 99 

Platform and stagings, 103 

Pneumatic tools, 176 

Pneumonia, 7 

Porcelain industry, 132 

Pores of the skin, 133 

Protective clothing for men, 32 

" " bibliography, 211 

" " for women, 45 

" " bibliography, 212 

" " (see also Shoes) 

Psychology of clothes, 35 

Psychology, safety, 200 

Public schools and safety educa- 
tion, 204 

Rain, 180 

Rain, rust and failures due to, 181 

Rausch, C.^ C, 108, 166 

Refrigeration, 178 

Repairmen, safeguarding, 88 

Reflection of light, 141 

Reflectors, 159 

Remote control apparatus, 89 

Respiration, 6 

Respiration, artificial, 25 

Respirators, 44, 53, no 

" designed by the N. Y. 

State Industrial Commission, 43 
Roach, John, 43, 129 
Rot and decay, 188 
Rust, 189 



227 



INDEX 



Safe heads and good eyes, 6i 

bibliography, 214 
Safeguards, machinery, 79 
Safety committees, workmen, 199, 

204 
Safety education, 201 

bibliography, 221 
children, 204 

engineer and shop planning, 
80 
engineer, qualifications, 81 
engineering, 193 
movement the forerunner of 
employee representation, 205 
shop organization, 193 
standards and the factory 
building, 80 
" survey, fundamental princi- 
ples to be observed, 82 
Schaefer^ method of artificial res- 
piration, 25, 31 
Schultz, H. A., 79 
Scrubwomen, knee pads for, 55 
Seats for employees, 100 
Service, basis of safety work, 193 
Shock, electric, 27 
Shock, treatment of, 24 
Shoes, 38, 39, 42, 50, 56, 103, 107 

" high heels harmful, 56, 106 
Shop layout, 93 
Shoudy, L. A., 17, 23 
Sickness, 4, 94 
Simpson, R. E., 135 
Skylights, 118 
Slippery floors, 99 
Smith, F. C, 3 
Smoke, 172 
Snow, 179 

Stairways, lighting, 164 
Steam, 114 

Steel, expansion of, 187 
Sulphurous acid, 182 
Sylvester, method of artificial res- 
piration, 25 

Tanks, storage, 179, 181 

Tanning, 134 

Teeth, 13, 15, 95 

Temperature, body's normal, 113 

Tetrachloride fumes, 170 

Tobacco, 30 

Toe accidents, 42 

Tonsils, 14, 15 

Transmission machinery, 84 



Tripping, 99, 103 
Typhoid fever, 22 
Tuberculosis, 7 

Ultra-violet rays, 41, 76, 190 
Unconsciousness, 24 
Uniforms, proper for women work- 
ers, 54 (see also Protective 
Clothing) 
Union Switch and Signal Com- 
pany, 56 
U. S. Army draft rejections, 95 
" " " helmets, 74 
" " Bureau of Standards, eye 

protection, yj 
" " Dept. of Labor, Working 
Conditions Service, stand- 
ards for women workers, 
49 
" " Steel Corporation, 195 

Vapors (see Fumes) 
Varicose veins, 25 
Ventilation, 16, 108, 114 
Vestibules, in factories and resi- 
dences, 117 
Visual purple, 139 
Visualization of safety work, 206 

Washrooms, 34, 59 
Water, decay caused by, 182 
Water, hazards of storage, 179 
Water, impure as conductor of 

electricity, 182 
Welding, acetylene, 41, 71 

" electrical, 171 

Welfare work, 205 
Wind, its properties and hazards, 

174 180 
Woodworking, dust in, 134 
Women and hysteria, 30 

" in industry, 455 

" in machine shops, 47 

" workers and heavy weights, 
48 

" lead poisoning, 48 
Women's work vs. man's work, 48 
Workingmen's councils, 205 

" safety committees, 199 

Wounds, 21 

Young, A. H., 193 



Zinc chloride, 188 



228 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

0i9 566 885 1 



